Abdullah, I. (2004). Between Democracy and Terror: The Sierra Leone Civil War. Dakar: Codesria.Google Scholar

Adigbuo, R. (2007). Beyond IR theories: The Case for National Role Conceptions. Politikon, 34(1), 83–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Aggestam, L. (1999). Role Conceptions and the Politics of Identity in Foreign Policy. Working Paper 08. ARENA, Centre for European Studies, Oslo.Google Scholar

Akinyemi, O. (2014). Borders in Nigeria’s Relations with Cameroon. Journal of Arts & Humanities, 3(9), 13–20.Google Scholar

Amos, J. W. II (1980). Palestinian Resistance: Organization of a Nationalist Movement. New York: Pergamon Press.Google Scholar

Anderson, H. (1992). Mozambique: A War against the People. New York: St. Martin Press.Google Scholar

Arieff, A. (2009). Still Standing: Neighborhood Wars and Political Stability in Guinea. The Journal of Modern African Studies, 47(3), 331–348.Google Scholar

Avirgan, T., and Honey, M. (1983). War in Uganda: The Legacy of Idi Amin. Dar es Salaam: Tanzania Publishing House.Google Scholar

Bachmann, J. (2014). Policing Africa: The US Military and Visions of Crafting “Good Order.” Security Dialogue, 45(2), 119–136.Google Scholar

Bah, A. B. (2010). Democracy and Civil War: Citizenship and Peacemaking in Côte d’Ivoire. African affairs, 109(437), 597–615.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Balch-Lindsay, D., and Enterline, A. J. (2000). Killing Time: The World Politics of Civil War Duration, 1820–1992. International Studies Quarterly, 44(4), 615–642.Google Scholar

Banks, A. S., and Wilson, K. A. (2017). Cross-National Time Series Data Archive. Jerusalem: Databanks International. https://lib.msu.edu/about/data/cnts/.Google Scholar

Barnes, C., and Hassan, H. (2007). The Rise and Fall of Mogadishu’s Islamic Courts. Journal of Eastern African Studies, 1(2), 151–160.Google Scholar

Bartoli, A., and Mutisi, M. (2014). Merging Militaries: Mozambique. In Licklider, R., ed., New Armies from Old. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, pp. 163–178.Google Scholar

Bassey, J. R. (2014). Anglo-German Treaty of 1913 and Its Influence on World Court Decision in the Nigeria v. Cameroon Case Concerning Bakassi. International Journal of Current Research, 6(11), 832–840.Google Scholar

Bat, J.-P. (2012). La Fabrique des Barbouzes: Histoire des Réseaux Foccart en Afrique. Paris: Nouveau Monde.Google Scholar

Baynham, M. (1989). The East African Mutinies of 1964. Journal of Contemporary African Studies, 8(1), 153–180.Google Scholar

Bidwell, R. (1998). Dictionary of Modern Arab History. South Glamorgan: Kegan Paul International.Google Scholar

Blackwell, S. (2003). Saving the King: Anglo-American Strategy and British Counter-Subversion Operations in Libya, 1953–59. Middle Eastern Studies, 39(1), 1–18.Google Scholar

Blasier, C. (1979). Comment: The Consequences of Military Initiatives. In Blasier, C. and Mesa-Lago, C., eds., Cuba in the World. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, pp. 50–55.Google Scholar

Boshoff, H., Vrey, W., and Rautenbach, G. (2010). The Burundi Peace Process: From Civil War to Conditional Peace. Addis Ababa: Institute for Security Studies. https://issafrica.org/research/monographs/the-burundi-peace-process-from-civil-war-to-conditional-peace.Google Scholar

Bourgeot, A. (1995). Les Sociétés Touarègues: Nomadisme, Identité, Résistances. Paris: Karthala.Google Scholar

Bourgi, A. (2009). Aux Racines de la Françafrique: La Dégradation de l’Image de la France. Annuaire Français des Relations Internationales, 10(1), 1–14.Google Scholar

Boussaid, F. (2020). Brothers in Arms: Morocco’s Military Intervention in Support of Mobutu of Zaire during the 1977 and 1978 Shaba Crises. The International History Review 43(1), 185–202.Google Scholar

Brabant, S. (1983–1984). Aspects Politiques et Diplomatiques de l’Intervention de Kolwezi en 1978: Réalité–Information. Brussels: Ecole Royale Militaire.Google Scholar

Braumoeller, B. F. (1999). Improving Quantitative Studies in International Conflict: A Conjecture. American Political Science Review, 94(1), 21–36.Google Scholar

Braumoeller, B. F. (2019). Only the Dead: The Persistence of War in the Modern Age. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Brecher, M., and Wilkenfeld, J. (2017). A Study of Crisis. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar

Breuning, M. (2017). Role Theory in Foreign Policy. In Thompson, W. R., ed., Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 124–135.Google Scholar

Brownly, I. (1979). African Boundaries: A Legal and Diplomatic Encyclopedia. London: C. Hurst.Google Scholar

Bruton, B. (2010). Somalia: A New Approach. New York: Council on Foreign Relations.Google Scholar

Butcher, C., and Maru, M. (2018). Diversionary Tactics and the Ethiopia–Eritrea War (1998–2000). Small Wars & Insurgencies, 29(1), 68–90.Google Scholar

Byrne, J. J. (2014). The Cold War in Africa. In Kalinovsky, A. M. and Daigle, C., eds., The Routledge Handbook of the Cold War. New York: Routledge, pp. 149–162.Google Scholar

Camara, M. S. (2000). From Military Politization to Militarization of Power in Guinea-Conakry. Journal of Political and Military Sociology, 28(2), 311–326.Google Scholar

Camarena, K. R. (2015). Refugee Policy as Foreign Policy: Third Party Intervention in Civil War. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, San Francisco, September 3, 2015.Google Scholar

Cameron, H. (2015). The French Connection: Complicity in the 1994 Genocide in Rwanda. African Security, 8(2), 96–119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Cantir, C., and Kaarbo, J., eds. (2016). Domestic Role Contestation, Foreign Policy, and International Relations. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar

Carayannis, T., Lombard, L., and Marchal, R. (2015). Making Sense of the Central African Republic. London: Zed Books.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Carter, E. B. (2020). Diversionary Cheap Talk: Economic Conditions and US Foreign Policy Rhetoric, 1945–2010. International Interactions, 46(2), 163–198.Google Scholar

Chen, T. (2011). Four Points toward the Understanding of Egypt’s Foreign Relations. Journal of Middle Eastern and Islamic Studies, 5(1), 83–101.Google Scholar

Chipman, J. (1986). V^e République et Défense de l’Afrique. Paris: CHEAM.Google Scholar

Chivvis, C. S. (2016). The French War on Al Qa’ida in Africa. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Chrétien, J.-P., and Dupaquier, J.-F. (2007). Burundi 1972: Au Bord des Génocides. Paris: L’Harmattan.Google Scholar

Christensen, G. H., Norvanto, E., and Mandrip, T. (2018). The European Union’s Military Operation in Central African Republic: Successes, Shortcomings, and Lessons Identified. Copenhagen: Royal Danish College. http://fak.dk/biblioteket/publikationer/Documents/CAR%20EUFOR%20RCA.pdf.Google Scholar

Clapham, C. (1996). Africa and the International System. London: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Clapham, C. (2002). The Challenge to the State in a Globalized World. Development and Change, 33(5), 775–795.Google Scholar

Clark, D. H. (2003). Can Strategic Interaction Divert Diversionary Behavior? A Model of US Conflict Propensity. The Journal of Politics, 65(4), 1013–1039.Google Scholar

Clark, J. F. (1998). Foreign Intervention in the Civil War of the Congo Republic. Issue: A Journal of Opinion, 26(1), 31–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Clark, J. F. (2001). Explaining Ugandan Intervention in Congo: Evidence and Interpretations. The Journal of Modern African Studies, 39(2), 261–287.Google Scholar

Clemens, M. (2015). The Maritime Silk Road and the PLA. China as a “Maritime Power” Conference, Center for Naval Analysis, Arlington, VA, USA, July 28–29.Google Scholar

Cliffe, L. (1999). Regional Dimensions of Conflict in the Horn of Africa. Third World Quarterly, 20(1), 89–111.Google Scholar

Cohen, B. P. (1989). Developing Sociological Knowledge: Theory and Methods, 2nd ed. Chicago: Nelson-Hall.Google Scholar

Collier, D., and Mahoney, J. (1996). Insights and Pitfalls: Selection Bias in Qualitative Research. World Politics, 49(1), 56–91.Google Scholar

Conrad, J. (1899 [1994]). Heart of Darkness. London: Penguin Books.Google Scholar

Correlates of War (2016). The Correlates of War Project. www.correlatesofwar.org.Google Scholar

Coser, L. (1956). The Functions of Group Conflict. New York: The Free Press.Google Scholar

Coutau-Bégarie, H. (1990). Le Problème du Porte-Avion. Paris: Economica & CREST/Ecole Polytechnique.Google Scholar

Cronqvist, L. (2003). Using Multi-value Logic Synthesis in Social Science. Paper presented at the Second General Conference of the European Consortium for Political Research, Philipps-Universität, Marburg, Germany, September 18–21.Google Scholar

David, S. (1979–1980). Realignment in the Horn: The Soviet Advantage. International Security, 4(2), 69–90.Google Scholar

de Vulpian, L., and Prungnaud, T. (2012). Silence Turquoise. Rwanda, 1992–1994: Responsabilités de l’Etat Français dans le Génocide des Tutsi. Paris: L’Harmattan.Google Scholar

de Witte, L. (2017). The Suppression of the Congo Rebellion and the Rise of Mobutu, 1963–5. International History Review, 39(1), 107–125.Google Scholar

Deighton, A. (1995). Introduction. In Deighton, A., ed., Building Postwar Europe: National Decision-Makers and European Institutions, 1948–63. London: Macmillan Press, pp. xiii–xxviii.Google Scholar

Demmers, J., and Gould, L. (2018). An Assemblage Approach to Liquid Warfare: AFRICOM and the “Hunt” for Joseph Kony. Security Dialogue, 49(5) 364–381.Google Scholar

Demoulin, A. (1997). La France Militaire et l’Afrique. Brussels: Editions Complexe.Google Scholar

Deng, A. M. (2017). The Bor Massacre: The Death Triangle. New York: CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform.Google Scholar

Dobrynin, A. (1995). In Confidence: Moscow’s Ambassador to Six Cold War Presidents. Seattle: University of Washington Press.Google Scholar

Dominquez, J. I. (1982). Cuba: Internal and International Affairs, Beverly Hills: Sage Publications.Google Scholar

Doom, R., and Vlassenroot, K. (1999). Kony’s Message: A New Koine? The Lord’s Resistance Army in Northern Uganda. African Affairs, 98(390), 5–36.Google Scholar

Dorman, A. M. (2009). Blair’s Successful War: British Military Intervention in Sierra Leone. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar

Drysdale, J. (1994). Whatever Happened to Somalia? London: Haan.Google Scholar

Dualeh, H. (1994). From Barre to Aideed, Somalia: The Agony of a Nation. Nairobi: Stellagraphics, Limited.Google Scholar

Dumbuya, P. A. (2016). AFRICOM in US Transformational Diplomacy. Journal of Global South Studies, 33(1), 115–146.Google Scholar

Dzimba, J. 1998. South Africa’s Destabilization of Zimbabwe, 1980–89. New York: Macmillan.Google Scholar

Edmond, P., Titeca, K., and Kennes, E. (2019). The DRC-Angola Offshore Oil Dispute: How Regime (In)security Outweighs Sovereign Claims. Journal of Southern African Studies, 45(5), 841–857.Google Scholar

Elbe, S. (2002). HIV/AIDS and the Changing Landscape of War in Africa. International Security, 27(2), 159–177.Google Scholar

Emerson, S. A. (2014). The Battle for Mozambique: The Frelimo-Renamo Struggle. 1977–1992. Solihull: Helion & Company.Google Scholar

Erickson, A. S., and Strange, A. M., eds. (2016). Six Years at Sea … and Counting: Gulf of Aden Anti-piracy and China’s Maritime Commons Presence. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.Google Scholar

Ermarth, F. (1969). The Soviet Union in the Third World: Purpose in Search of Power. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 386(1), 31–40.Google Scholar

Farsoun, K., and Paul, J. (1976). War in the Sahara: 1963. Middle East Research and Information Project (MERIP) Reports, 45, 13–16.Google Scholar

Fearon, J. D., and Laitin, D. D. (1993). Ethnicity, Insurgency, and Civil War. American Political Science Review, 97(1), 75–90.Google Scholar

Feste, K. A. (1992). Expanding the Frontiers: Superpower Intervention in the Cold War. New York: Praeger.Google Scholar

Fieldhouse, D. K. (1961). Imperialism: An Historiographical Revision. Economic History Review, 14 (2), 187–209.Google Scholar

Findley, M. G., and Marineau, J. F. (2014). Lootable Resources and Third-Party Interventions into Civil Wars. Conflict Management and Peace Science, 32(5), 465–486.Google Scholar

Finemore, M. (2003). The Purpose of Interventions: Changing Beliefs about the Use of Force. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar

Firth, D. (1993). Bias Reduction of Maximum Likelihood Estimates. Biometrika, 80(1), 27–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Fiss, P. C. (2011). Building Better Causal Theories: A Fuzzy Set Approach to Typologies in Organization Research. Academy of Management Journal, 54(2), 393–420.Google Scholar

Fordham, B. O. (2002). Another Look at “Parties, Voters, and the Use of Force Abroad.” Journal of Conflict Resolution, 46(4), 572–596.Google Scholar

Forsberg, E. (2016). Transnational Dimensions of Civil Wars. In Mason, T. D. and Mitchell, S. M., eds., What Do We Know about Civil Wars. New York: Rowman & Littlefield, pp. 75–93.Google Scholar

Fortna, P. (2013). Has Violence Declined in World Politics? Perspectives on Politics, 11(2), 566–570.Google Scholar

Fowler, W. (2004). Operation Barras – the SAS Rescue Mission – Sierra Leone 2000. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.Google Scholar

Francioni, F. (1984). The Status of the Gulf of Sirte in International Law. Syracuse Journal of International Law and Commerce, 11(2), 311–326.Google Scholar

Furley, O., and May, R. (2001). African Interventionist States. Hamshire: Ashgate .Google Scholar

Gakwandi, A. (1999). Foreign Relations. In Mugaju, J., ed., Uganda’s Age of Reform: A Critical Overview. Kampala: Fountain, pp. 46–59.Google Scholar

Garfinkel, M. R. (1989). What Is an Acceptable Rate of Inflation? A Review of the Issues. Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Review, 71(4), 3–15.Google Scholar

Gberie, L. (2005). A Dirty War in West Africa: The RUF and the Destruction of Sierra Leone. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar

Gegout, C. (2018). Why Europe Intervenes in Africa: Security, Prestige and the Legacy of Colonialism. London: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

George, A. L., and Bennett, A. (2005). Case Studies and Theory Development in the Social Sciences. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar

Gérard-Libois, J., and Verhaegen, B. (1961). Congo 1960. Brussels: CRISP.Google Scholar

Ghani, A., and Lockhart, C. (2009). Fixing Failed States. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Gibler, D. M., and Sarkees, M. R. (2004). Measuring Alliances: The Correlates of War Formal Interstate Alliance Dataset, 1816–2000. Journal of Peace Research, 41(2), 211–222.Google Scholar

Gigleux, V. (2016). Explaining the Diversity of Small States’ Foreign Policies through Role Theory. Third World Thematics: A TWQ Journal, 1(1), 27–45.Google Scholar

Gleditsch, K. S., Salehyan, I., and Schultz, K. (2008). Fighting at Home, Fighting Abroad: How Civil Wars Lead to International Disputes. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 52(4), 479–506.Google Scholar

Gleijeses, P. (2006). Moscow’s Proxy? Cuba and Africa 1975–1988. Journal of Cold War Studies, 8(4), 98–146.Google Scholar

Goemans, H., Gleditsch, K., and Chiozza, G. (2009). Archigos: A Data Base on Leaders, 1875–2004. Journal of Peace Research, 46(2), 269–283. Updated version 4.1, March 2016 at www.rochester.edu/college/faculty/hgoemans/data.htm.Google Scholar

Gonzalez, E. (1979). Comment: Operational Goals of Cuban Policy in Africa. In Blasier, C. and Mesa-Lago, C., eds., Cuba and the World. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, pp. 56–62.Google Scholar

González-Aimé, E. (2013). The Security Issues behind the Ethiopian Intervention in Somalia (2006–2009). In Dias, A. M., ed., State and Societal Challenges in the Horn of Africa: Conflict and Processes of State Formation. Lisbon: Center of African Studies, University Institute of Lisbon, pp. 32–47.Google Scholar

Gorman, R. F. (1984). Soviet Perspectives on the Prospects for Socialist Development in Africa. African Affairs, 83(331), 163–187.Google Scholar

Gregory, S. (2000). The French Military in Africa: Past and Present. African Affairs, 99(396), 435–448.Google Scholar

Guarak, M. A. M. (2011). Integration and Fragmentation of Sudan: An African Renaissance. Bloomington: AuthorHouse.Google Scholar

Guillemin, J. (1979). Coopération et Intervention: La Politique Militaire de la France en Afrique Noire Francophone et à Madagascar. PhD dissertation, University of Nice, Nice, France.Google Scholar

Gwertzman, B. (1984). French Troops May Go Back to Chad. New York Times, November 20. www.nytimes.com/1984/11/20/world/french-troops-may-go-back-to-chad.html.Google Scholar

Hamani, D. (1989). Au Carrefour du Soudan et de la Berbérie: Le Sultanat Touareg de l’Ayar. Niamey: Institut de Recherches en Sciences Humaines.Google Scholar

Hammer, J. (2016). Hunting Boko Haram. The US Extends Its Drone War Deeper into Africa with Secretive Base. The Intercept, February 25. https://theintercept.com/2016/02/25/us-extends-drone-war-deeper-into-africa-with-secretive-base/.Google Scholar

Handloff, R. E. (1990). Mauritania: A Country Study. Washington, DC: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress.Google Scholar

Hansen, P., and Jonsson, S. (2014). The Untold History of European Integration and Colonialism. London: Bloomsbury Academic.Google Scholar

Harff, B. (2001). Could Humanitarian Crises Have Been Anticipated in Burundi, Rwanda, and Zaire? In Alker, H., Gurr, T. R., and Rupesinghe, K., eds., Through Conflict: Narratives and Lessons. New York: Rowman & Littlefield, pp. 81–102.Google Scholar

Harnisch, S. (2011). Role Theory: A Reference to Key Concepts. In Harnisch, S., Frank, C., and Maull, H. W., eds., Role Theory in International Relations: Approaches and Analyses. London: Routledge, pp. 1–16.Google Scholar

Harris, D. (2014). A Political History of Sierra Leone. London: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Hassan, H. A., and Al Rasheedy, A. (2007). The Nile River and Egyptian Foreign Policy Interests. African Sociological Review, 11(1), 25–37.Google Scholar

Haynes, K. (2016). Diversity and Diversion: How Ethnic Composition Affects Diversionary Conflict. International Studies Quarterly, 60(2), 258–271.Google Scholar

Heggoy, A. A. (1970). Colonial Origins of the Algerian-Moroccan Border Conflict of October 1963. African Studies Review, 13(1), 17–22.Google Scholar

Heinze, G. M., and Schemper, M. (2002). A Solution to the Problem of Separation in Logistic Regression. Statistics in Medicine, 21(16), 2409–2419.Google Scholar

Helman, G. B., and Ratner, S. R. (1992–1993). Saving Failed States. Foreign Policy, 89(4), 3–20.Google Scholar

Henriksen, T. H. (1983). Revolution and Counterrevolution: Mozambique’s War of Independence, 1964–1974. Westport: Greenwood Press.Google Scholar

Henry, J. (2016). China’s Military Deployments in the Gulf of Aden: Anti-piracy and Beyond. Policy Papers no 89. Paris: IFRI Center for Asian Studies.Google Scholar

Hentz, J. J. (2004). The Contending Currents in United States Involvement in Sub-Saharan Africa. In Taylor, I. and Williams, P., eds., Africa in International Politics. New York: Routledge, pp. 35–52.Google Scholar

Hentz, J. J. (2019). Toward a Structural Theory of War in Africa. African Security, 12(2), 144–173.Google Scholar

Herbst, J. (1990). War and the State in Africa. International Security, 14(4), 117–139.Google Scholar

Hermann, C. F. (1987). Superpower Involvement with Others: Alternative Role Relationships. In Walker, S. G., ed., Role Theory and Foreign Policy Analysis. Durham: Duke University Press, pp. 219–240.Google Scholar

Hoffman, D. (2004). The Civilian Target in Sierra Leone and Liberia: Political Power, Military Strategy, and Humanitarian Intervention. African Affairs, 103(456), 211–226.Google Scholar

Holsti, K. J. (1970). National Role Conceptions in the Study of Foreign Policy. International Studies Quarterly, 14(3), 233–309.Google Scholar

Hosmer, S. T., and Wolfe, T. W. (1983). Soviet Policy and Practice toward Third World Conflicts. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar

Howard, C. E. (2018). A Different Sort of Mission: Special Operations Resuscitations Teams in Operation Observant Compass. Veritas, 14(3), 45–56.Google Scholar

Hudson, V. M. (1999). Cultural Expectations of One’s Own and Other Nations’ Foreign Policy Action Templates. Political Psychology, 20(4), 767–801.Google Scholar

Hughes, A., and May, R. (1986). Armies on Loan. In Baynham, S., ed., Military Power and Politics in Black Africa. London: Crown Helm, pp. 177–202.Google Scholar

Huliaras, A. C. (1998). The “Anglo-Saxon Conspiracy”: French Perception of the Great Lakes Crisis. The Journal of Modern African Studies, 36(4), 593–609.Google Scholar

Hultman, L., Kathman, J. D., and Shannon, M. (2019). Peacekeeping in the Midst of War. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Human Rights Watch (1999). Acknowledging Genocide. www.hrw.org/reports/1999/rwanda/Geno15-8-02.htm#TopOfPage.Google Scholar

Human Rights Watch (2003). World Report 2003: Ethiopia. www.hrw.org/legacy/wr2k3/africa5.html.Google Scholar

ICG (2000). Scramble for the Congo: Anatomy of an Ugly War. ICG Africa Report, no. 26, December 26. Brussels. crisisgroup.org.Google Scholar

ICG (2007). Central African Republic: Anatomy of a Phantom State. ICG Africa Report, no 136, December 13. Brussels. crisisgroup.org.Google Scholar

ICG (2008). Chad: A New Conflict Resolution Framework. ICG Africa Report, no. 144, September 24. Brussels. crisisgroup.org.Google Scholar

ICG (2012). The Kenyan Military Intervention in Somalia. ICG Africa Report, no. 184, February 15. Brussels. crisisgroup.org.Google Scholar

ICG (2017). Avoiding the Worst in Central African Republic. ICG Africa Report, no. 253, September 26. Brussels. crisisgroup.org.Google Scholar

IMF (2010). Direction of Trade Statistics. Washington, DC: IMF Publications.Google Scholar

IMF (2016). Direction of Trade Statistics. Washington, DC: IMF Publications.Google Scholar

IRIN West Africa (1998). Senegal’s Guinea Bissau intervention. University of Pennsylvania – African Studies Center, August 20. www.africa.upenn.edu/Newsletters/irinw_82098.html.Google Scholar

Irish, J., and Flynn, D. (2013). Chad Emerges as African Power Broker as France Steps Back. Reuters, May 8. www.reuters.com/article/us-africa-chad/chad-emerges-as-african-power-broker-as-france-steps-back-idUSBRE94707C20130508.Google Scholar

Iriye, A. (2013). Historicizing the Cold War. In Immerman, R. H. and Goedde, P., eds., The Oxford Handbook of the Cold War. London: Oxford University Press, pp. 25–50.Google Scholar

Jackson, R., and Rotberg, C. (1982). Why Africa’s Weak States Persist: The Empirical and the Juridical in Statehood. World Politics, 35(1), 1–24.Google Scholar

Jackson, R., and Rotberg, C. (1986). Sovereignty and Underdevelopment: Juridical Statehood in African Crisis. The Journal of Modern African Studies, 24(1), 1–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

James, P., and Oneal, J. R. (1991). The Influence of Domestic and International Politics on the President’s Use of Force. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 35(2), 307–332.Google Scholar

Jones, C. (2016). Chapter 1 – the Facts of Economic Growth. Handbook of Macroeconomics, vol. 2, 3–69.Google Scholar

Junior, M. (2019). Popular Armed Forces for the Liberation of Angola: First National Army and the War (1975–1992), Bloomington: AuthorHouse.Google Scholar

Kaczmarski, M. (2020). Russia and China in Global Governance. In Dalad, E. P. and Ersen, E., eds., Russia in the Changing International System. New York: Palgrave, pp. 95–112.Google Scholar

Kahwati, L. C., and Kane, H. L. (2020). Qualitative Comparative Analysis in Mixed Methods Research and Evaluation. Vol. 6 of Mixed Method Research Series. Los Angeles: SAGE Publications.Google Scholar

Kaifala, J. (2017). Free Slaves, Freetown, and the Sierra Leonean Civil War. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar

Kalck, P. (2004). Historical Dictionary of the Central African Republic. London: The Scarecrow Press.Google Scholar

Kamara, G. (2006). Guinea: Big Brother or Big Bully? The Patriotic Vanguard: Sierra Leone News Portal, March 29. www.thepatrioticvanguard.com/guinea-big-brother-or-big-bully.Google Scholar

Kapcia, A. (2011). Defying Expectations: The External Profile and Activism of the Cuban Revolution. In Gardini, G. L. and Lambert, P., eds., Latin American Foreign Policies: Between Ideology and Pragmatism. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 179–195.Google Scholar

Kaplan, R. D. (1986). Why Sudan Starves While Western Aid Pours, Wall Street Journal, November 5, p. 31.Google Scholar

Katz, M. (2012). The Third World in Soviet Military Thought. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar

Kegley, C. W. Jr., and Raymond, G. A. (1991). Alliances and the Preservation of the Postwar Peace: Weighing the Contribution. In Kegley, C. W. Jr., ed., The Long Postwar Peace. New York: HarperCollins, pp. 270–289.Google Scholar

Kelly, F. (2019). ISWAP Killed “Dozens” of Nigeria and Chad Troops Near Baga in July 29 clashes. The Defense Post, August 1. www.thedefensepost.com/2019/08/01/nigeria-baga-iswap-borno/.Google Scholar

Kempster, N. (1996). Americans Evacuated from Central African Republic. Los Angeles Times, May 22. www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1996-05-22-mn-7063-story.html.Google Scholar

Kimina-Makumbu, F. (2018). Fantastique Football Congolais: Rétrospective 1919–2000. McFarland: Books on Demand.Google Scholar

King, G., Keohane, R.O., and Verba, S. (1994). Designing Social Inquiry: Scientific Inquiry in Qualitative Research. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

King, G., and Zeng, L. (2001). Logistic Regression in Rare Events Data. Political Analysis, 9(2), 137–163.Google Scholar

Kingdon, J. (1995). Agendas: Alternatives and Public Policies. New York: HarperCollins College.Google Scholar

Kisangani, E. F. (1997). Zaire after Mobutu: A Case of a Humanitarian Emergency. Helsinki: UN/WIDER Publications.Google Scholar

Kisangani, E. F. (2000). The Massacre of Refugees in Congo: A Case of UN Peacekeeping Failure and International Law. The Journal of Modern African Studies, 38(2), 163–202.Google Scholar

Kisangani, E. F. (2003). Conflict in the Democratic Republic of the Congo: A Mosaic of Insurgent Groups. International Journal on World Peace, 20(3), 51–80.Google Scholar

Kisangani, E. F. (2012a). Civil Wars in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers.Google Scholar

Kisangani, E. F. (2012b). The Tuaregs’ Rebellions in Mali and Niger and the U.S. Global War on Terror. International Journal on World Peace, 29(1), 59–97Google Scholar

Kisangani, E. F. (2015). Social Cleavages and Politics of Exclusion: Instability in the Central African Republic. International Journal on World Peace, 33(1), 33–56.Google Scholar

Kisangani, E. F. (2016). Historical Dictionary of the Democratic Republic of Congo. New York: Rowman & Littlefield.Google Scholar

Kisangani, E. F., and Pickering, J. (2007). Diverting with Benevolent Military Force: Reducing Risks and Rising above Strategic Behavior. International Studies Quarterly, 51(2), 277–299.Google Scholar

Kisangani, E. F., and Pickering, P. (2008). International Military Interventions: 1989–2005. Inter-University Consortium for Political and Social research Data Collection no. 21282. Ann Arbor, University of Michigan.Google Scholar

Kisangani, E. F., and Pickering, P. (2009). The Dividends of Diversion: Mature Democracies’ Proclivity to Use Diversionary Force and the Rewards They Reap from It. British Journal of Political Science, 39(2), 483–515.Google Scholar

Kisangani, E. F., and Pickering, P. (2014). Rebels, Rivals, and Post-colonial State-Building: Identifying Bellicist Influences on State Extractive Capability. International Studies Quarterly, 58(1), 187–198.Google Scholar

Kisangani, E. F., and Pickering, P. (2017). International Military Interventions: An Updated Version, 2006–2015. Department of Political Science, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas.Google Scholar

Klinghoffer, A. I. (1980). The Angolan War: A Study in Soviet Policy in the Third World. Boulder: Westview Press.Google Scholar

Lai, B., and Slater, D. (2006). Institutions of the Offensive: Domestic Sources of Dispute Initiation in Authoritarian Regimes, 1950–1992. American Journal of Political Science, 50(1), 113–126.Google Scholar

Laitin, D., and Samatar, S. (1987). Somalia: Nation in Search of a State. Boulder: Westview Press.Google Scholar

Lake, D. A., and Morgan, P. M. (2010). Regional Orders: Building Security in a New World. State College: Pennsylvania State Press.Google Scholar

Lanotte, O. (2003). Guerres sans Frontières en République Démocratique du Congo. Brussels: Editions GRIP.Google Scholar

Larrabee, S. (1976). Moscow, Angola and the Dialectics of Détente. The World Today, 32(5), 173–182.Google Scholar

Larsdotter, K. (2014). Fighting Transnational Insurgents: The South African Defence Force in Namibia, 1966–1989. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 37(12), 1024–1038.Google Scholar

Le Prestre, P. G., ed. (1997). Role Quests in the Post-Cold War Era: Foreign Policies in Transition, London: McGill-Queen’s University Press.Google Scholar

Lefebre, J. A. (1991). Arms for the Horn: U.S. Security Policy in Ethiopia and Somalia, 1953–1991, Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.Google Scholar

Legewie, N. (2013). An Introduction to Applied Data Analysis with Qualitative Comparative Analysis. Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung/Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 14(3), 1–33.Google Scholar

Lemarchand, R. (1994). Burundi: Ethnic Conflict and Genocide. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Lemke, D. (2011). Intra-national IR in Africa. Review of International Studies, 37(1), 49–70.Google Scholar

Lemke, D., and Regan, P. M. (2004). Interventions as Influence. In Diehl, P., ed., The Scourge of War: New Extensions on an Old Problem. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, pp. 145–168.Google Scholar

LeoGrande, W. M. (1979). Cuban-Soviet Relations and Cuban Policy in Africa. In Blasier, C. and Mesa-Lago, C., eds., Cuba and the World. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, pp. 13–49.Google Scholar

LeRoux, P. (2019). Responding to the Rise of Violent Extremism in the Sahel. Africa Security Brief no. 36. African Center for Strategic Studies, Washington, DC.Google Scholar

Levy, J. S. (1989). The Diversionary Theory of War: A Critique. In Midlarsky, M. I., ed., Handbook of War Studies, Volume 1. London: Unwin Hyman, pp. 259–288.Google Scholar

Levy, J. S. (1994). Learning and Foreign Policy: Sweeping a Conceptual Minefield. International Organization, 48(2), 279–312.Google Scholar

Levy, J. S., and Mabe, W. F. Jr. (2004). Politically Motivated Opposition to War. International Studies Review, 6(4), 65–83.Google Scholar

Lewis, I. M. (1963). Pan-Africanism and Pan-Somalism. The Journal of Modern African Studies, 1(2), 147–161.Google Scholar

Lewis, I. M. (1998). Saints and Somalis: Popular Islam in a Clan-Based Society, Trenton: Red Sea Press.Google Scholar

Likoti, F. J. (2007). The 1998 Military Intervention in Lesotho: SADC Peace Mission or Resource War? International Peacekeeping, 14(2), 251–263.Google Scholar

Lischer, S. K. (2005). Dangerous Sanctuaries: Refugee Camps, Civil War, and the Dilemmas of Humanitarian Aid. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar

Lochner, L., and Moretti, E. (2015). Estimating and Testing Models with Many Treatment Levels and Limited Instruments. Review of Economics and Statistics, 97(2), 387–397.Google Scholar

Londono, E. (2014). U.S. Deploys 80 Troops to Chad to Help Find Kidnapped Nigerian Schoolgirls. Washington Post, May 21. www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/us-deploys-80-military-personnel-to-chad/2014/05/21/edd7d21a-e11d-11e3-810f-764fe508b82d_story.html.Google Scholar

Lukong, H. V. (2011). The Cameroon-Nigeria Border Dispute: Management and Resolution, 1981–2011, Bamenda: Langaa RPCIG.Google Scholar

Lusting, H. (2013). What Was the South African Military Doing in the Central African Republic? Vice News, April 25. www.vice.com/en/article/dp4md7/what-were-the-south-african-military-up-to-in-central-african-republic.Google Scholar

Maddison, A. (2001). The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective. Paris: OECD.Google Scholar

Mahoney, J., and Goertz, G. (2004). The Possibility Principle: Choosing Negative Cases in Comparative Research. American Political Science Review, 98(4), 653–669.Google Scholar

Marshall, M., Gurr, T., and Jaggers, K. (2017). POLITY IV PROJECT: Political Regime Characteristics and Transitions, 1800–2015 Dataset Users’ Manual. Vienna: Centre for Systemic Peace. https://xmarquez.github.io/democracyData/reference/polityIV.html.Google Scholar

Marx, A. (2014). Crisp-Set Qualitative Comparative Analysis (csQCA) and Model Specification: Benchmarks for Future csQCA Applications. International Journal of Multiple Research Approaches, 4(2), 138–158.Google Scholar

Marx, A., and Dusa, A. (2011). Crisp-Set Qualitative Comparative Analysis (csQCA), Contradictions and Consistency Benchmarks for Model Specification. Methodological Innovations Online, 6(2), 103–148.Google Scholar

Massey, D. S. (2005). Botswana and Namibia. In Brunet-Jailly, E., ed., Border Disputes: A Global Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, pp. 55–60.Google Scholar

Mattelaer, A. T. J. (2008). The Strategic Planning of EU Military Operations – the Case of EUFOR Tchad/RCA. Working Paper no. 5/2008, Institute for European Studies, Brussels, Belgium. dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1577775.Google Scholar

Matthews, J. H., and Ofcansky, T. P. (1986). Military Airlift Command Operations in Sub-Saharan Africa, 1960–1985: A Case Study of Air Power in the Third World. Scott Air Force Base: Military Airlift Command.Google Scholar

McGovern, M. (2002). Regional Conflict and the Rhetoric of Counterinsurgency: Guineans and Refugees. Politique Africaine, 107(4), 84–102.Google Scholar

McLeod, A. (1997). Great Britain: Still Searching for Status? In Le Prestre, P.G., ed., Role Quests in the Post-Cold War Era: Foreign Policies in Transition. London: McGill-Queen’s University Press, pp. 261–270.Google Scholar

McNeill, C. (2017). “Playing the Away Game”: AFRICOM in the Sahara-Sahel. Political Geography, 58, 46–55.Google Scholar

Mehler, A., Melber, H., and Van Walraven, K. (2011). Africa Yearbook: Politics, Economy, and Society South of the Sahara, vol. 7. New York: Brill.Google Scholar

Mello, P. A., and Saideman, S. M. (2019). The Politics of Multinational Military Operations. Contemporary Security Policy, 40(1), 30–37.Google Scholar

Melvern, L. (2006). Conspiracy to Murder: The Rwandan Genocide, New York: Verso.Google Scholar

Melvern, L., and William, P. (2004). Britannia Waived the Rules: The Major Government and the 1994 Rwandan Genocide. African Affairs, 103(410), 1–22.Google Scholar

Menkhaus, K. (2006). Governance without Government in Somalia: Spoilers, State Building, and the Politics of Coping. International Security, 31(3), 74–106.Google Scholar

Menkhaus, K. (2007). The Crisis in Somalia: Tragedy in Five Acts. African Affairs, 106(204), 357–390.Google Scholar

Merand, F., and Rakotonirina, H. R. (2009). Baptism of Fire: The EU Force in Chad and the Central African Republic. Politique Africaine, 114(2), 105–125.Google Scholar

Meredith, M. (2005). The State of Africa: A History of Fifty Years of Independence. Eastbourne: Gardners Book.Google Scholar

Mesa-Lago, C. (1979). Cuban Foreign Policy in Africa: A General Framework. In Blasier, C. and Mesa-Lago, C., eds., Cuba and the World. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, pp. 1–12.Google Scholar

Metz, S. (1984). American Attitudes toward Decolonization in Africa. Political Science Quarterly, 99(3), 515–533.Google Scholar

Mitchell, B. R. (1998). International Historical Statistics. Europe 1750–1993. London: Macmillan.Google Scholar

Mlambo, N. (2012). Raids on Gorongossa: Zimbabwe’s Military Involvement in Mozambique 1982–1992. Working Paper no. 3, Southern African Center for Defence Information, Rondebosch, South Africa.Google Scholar

Morgenthau, H. J. (1967). To Intervene or Not to Intervene. Foreign Affairs, 45(3), 425–436.Google Scholar

Morgenthau, H. J. (1970). The Origins of the Cold War. In Hutmacher, J. and Susman, W., eds., The Origins of the Cold War. Waltham: Ginn and Co. pp. 425–436.Google Scholar

Mouric, N. (1984). La Politique Tschadienne de la France sous Valéry Discard d’Estaing: Vers la Prise en Compte de la Rébellion. Politique Africaine, 99(4), 86–101.Google Scholar

Mroszczyk, J., and Abrahms, M. (2021). “Terrorism in Africa: Explaining the Rise of Extremist Violence Against Civilians.” E-International Relations. www.e-ir.info/2021/04/09/terrorism-in-africa-explaining-the-rise-of-extremist-violence-against-civilians.Google Scholar

N’Gbanda, H. N.-K.-A. 1998. Ainsi Sonne Le Glas! Les Derniers Jours du Maréchal Mobutu. Paris: Editions Gideppe.Google Scholar

Nation, R. C. (1984). Soviet Engagement in Africa: Motives, Means, and Prospects. In Nation, R. C. and Kauppi, M. V., eds., The Soviet Impact in Africa. Lexington: Lexington Books, pp. 27–57.Google Scholar

Nest, M., Grignon, F., and Kisangani, E. F. (2006). The Democratic Republic of Congo: Economic Dimensions of War and Peace. Boulder: Lynne Rienner.Google Scholar

Ngoupandé, J.-P. (1997). Chronique de la Crise Centrafricaine, 1996–1997: Le Syndrome Barracuda. Paris: L’Harmattan.Google Scholar

Nolutshungu, S. (1995). Limits of Anarchy: Intervention and State Formation in Chad. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press.Google Scholar

Nzongola-Ntalaja, G. (2002). The Congo from Leopold to Kabila: A People’s History. London: Zed Books.Google Scholar

O’balance, E. (1977). The Secret War in the Sudan 1955–1972. London: Faber and Faber.Google Scholar

Odom, T. P. (2005). Journey into Darkness: Genocide in Rwanda, College Station: Texas A&M University Press.Google Scholar

Okoth, G. P. (1992). Intermittent Tensions in Uganda Relations: Historical Perspectives. Transafrican Journal of History, 21, 69–92.Google Scholar

Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. (2020). West African Studies: The Geography of Conflict in North and West Africa, Paris: OECD Publishing. doi.org/10.1787/6263017c-en.Google Scholar

Osakwe, C. C. C., and Audu, B. N. (2017). The Nigerian Led ECOMOG Military Intervention and Interest in the Sierra Leone Crisis. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 8(4), 107–115.Google Scholar

Ostrom, C. W., and Job, B. L. (1986). The President and the Political Use of Force. American Political Science Review, 80(2), 541–566.Google Scholar

Ott, U. F., Sinkovics, R. R., and Hoque, S. F. (2018). Advances in Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA): Application of Fuzzy Set in Business and Management Research. In Cassell, C., Cunliffe, A. L., and Grandy, G., eds., The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Business and Management Research Methods: Methods and Challenges. Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, pp. 414–430.Google Scholar

Ottaway, M. (1982). Soviet and American Influence in the Horn of Africa. New York: Praeger.Google Scholar

Ottaway, M. (1992). Nationalism Unbound: The Horn of Africa Revisited. SAIS Review, 12(2), 111–128.Google Scholar

Ottaway, M., and El-Sadany, M. (2012). Sudan: From Conflict to Conflict. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, May 16. https://carnegieendowment.org/2012/05/16/sudan-from-conflict-to-conflict-pub-48140.Google Scholar

Parmar, I. (2011). American Power and Identities in the Age of Obama. International Politics, 48(2/3), 153–163.Google Scholar

Parsons, T. (2007). The Lanet Incident, 2–25 January 1964: Military Unrest and National Amnesia in Kenya. International Journal of African Historical Studies, 40(1), 51–70.Google Scholar

Patman, R. G. (1990). The Soviet Union in the Horn of Africa: The Diplomacy of Intervention and Disengagement. Vol. 71 of Soviet and East European Studies. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Peace Research Institute Oslo. (2019). Data on Armed Conflict. www.prio.org/Data/Armed-Conflict/.Google Scholar

Peake, J. (2001). Presidential Agenda Setting in Foreign Policy. Political Research Quarterly, 54(1), 69–86.Google Scholar

Péan, P. (1990). L’Homme de l’Ombre. Paris: Fayard.Google Scholar

Pearson, F. S., and Baumann, R. A. (1988). International Military Interventions: Identification and Classification. International Interactions, 14(2), 173–180.Google Scholar

Pearson, F. S., and Baumann, R. A. (1993). International Military Intervention, 1946–1988. Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research. Data Collection 6035. Ann Arbor, University of Michigan.Google Scholar

Penketh, A. (2005). “Africa’s Pinochet” Faces Extradition and Trial for Crimes against Humanity. Human Rights Watch, September 29. https://www.hrw.org/news/2005/09/29/africas-pinochet-faces-extradition-and-trial-crimes-against-humanity#.Google Scholar

Peterson, S. (1996). Crisis Bargaining and the State: The Domestic Politics of International Conflict. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar

Pham, J.-P. (2005). Child Soldier, Adult Interests: The Global Dimension of the Sierra Leonean Tragedy. Hauppauge: Nova Science.Google Scholar

Piazza, J. A. (2006). Rooted in Poverty?: Terrorism, Poor Economic Development, and Social Cleavages. Terrorism and Political Violence, 18(1), 159–177.Google Scholar

Pickering, J. (1999). The Structural Shape of Force: Interstate Intervention in the Zones of Peace and Turmoil, 1946–1996. International Interactions, 25(4), 363–391.Google Scholar

Pickering, J., and Kisangani, E. F. (2005). Democracy and Diversionary Military Intervention: Reassessing Regime Type and the Diversionary Hypothesis. International Studies Quarterly, 49(1), 23–43.Google Scholar

Pickering, J., and Kisangani, E. F. (2010). Diversionary Despots? Comparing Autocracies’ Propensities to Use and to Benefit from Military Force. American Journal of Political Science, 54(2), 477–493.Google Scholar

Pickering, J., and Peceny, M. (2006). Forging Democracy at Gunpoint. International Studies Quarterly, 50(3), 539–559.Google Scholar

Pickering, J., and Thompson, W. R. (1998). Stability in a Fragmenting World: Interstate Military Force, 1946–1988. Political Research Quarterly, 51(1), 241–263.Google Scholar

Ploch, L. (2007). African Command: US Strategic Interests and the Role of the US Military in Africa, Washington, DC, Congressional Research Service, May 16. https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA543561.pdf.Google Scholar

Pockney, B. P. (1991). Soviet Statistics since 1950. Aldershot: Dartmouth Publishing.Google Scholar

Poggo, S. S. (2009). The First Sudanese Civil War: Africans, Arabs, and Israelis in Southern Sudan. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar

Pollack, K. M. (2004). Arabs at War: Military Effectiveness, 1948–1991. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.Google Scholar

Porter, B. D. (1986). The USSR in Third World Conflicts: Soviet Arms and Diplomacy in Local Wars 1945–1980. London: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Powell, N. (2017). Battling Instability? The Recurring Logic of French Military Intervention in Africa. African Security, 10(1), 47–72.Google Scholar

Prunier, G. (1995). The Rwanda Crisis, 1959–1994, History of a Genocide. New York: Hurst.Google Scholar

Prunier, G. (2004). Rebel Movements and Proxy Warfare: Uganda, Sudan and the Congo. African Affairs, 103(412), 359–383.Google Scholar

Prunier, G. (2009). Africa’s World War: Congo, the Rwandan Genocide and the Making of Continental Catastrophe. London: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Radu, M., and Klinghoffer, A. J. (1991). The Dynamics of Soviet Policy in Sub-Saharan Africa. New York: Holmes & Meier.Google Scholar

Ragin, C. C. (2000). Fuzzy-Set Social Science. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar

Ragin, C. C. (2008). Redesigning Social Inquiry: Set Relations in Social Research. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar

Ragin, C. C. (2014). The Comparative Method: Moving beyond Qualitative and Quantitative Strategies, with a New Introduction. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar

Rasler, K. A., and Thompson, W. R. (2017). War Making and the Building of State Capacity: Expanding the Bivariate Relationship. In Thompson, W. R., ed., Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics. London: Oxford University Press. doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.913.642.Google Scholar

Regan, P. M. (2000). Civil Wars and Foreign Powers: Outside Interventions and Intrastate Conflict. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar

Reno, W. (2001). The Failure of Peacekeeping in Sierra Leone. Current History, 100(646), 219–224.Google Scholar

Reyner, A. S. (1963). Morocco’s International Boundaries: A Factual Background. The Journal of Modern African Studies, 1(3), 313–326.Google Scholar

Rodt, A. P. (2012). The African Union Mission in Burundi. Civil Wars, 14(3), 373–392.Google Scholar

Roessler, P., and Verhoeven, H. (2016). Why Comrades Go to War: Liberation Politics and the Outbreak of Africa’s Deadliest Conflict. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Roig-Tierno, N., Gonzalez-Cruz, T. F., and Llopis-Martinez, J. (2017). An Overview of Qualitative Comparative Analysis: A Bibliometric Analysis. Journal of Innovation & Knowledge, 2(1), 15–23.Google Scholar

Rolandsen, Ø. H., and Leonardi, C. (2014). Discourses of Violence in the Transition from Colonialism to Independence in Southern Sudan, 1955–1960. Journal of Eastern African Studies, 8(4), 609–625.Google Scholar

Ronen, Y. (1992). Libya’s Intervention in Amin’s Uganda – a Broken Spearhead. Asian and African Studies, 26(2), 173–183.Google Scholar

Ronen, Y. (2003). Sudan and Egypt: The Swing of the Pendulum (1989–2001). Middle Eastern Studies, 39(3), 81–98.Google Scholar

Ross, M. L. (2006). A Closer Look at Oil, Diamonds, and Civil War. Annual Review of Political Science, 9, 265–300.Google Scholar

Rotberg, R. (1986). Africa, the Soviet Union and the West. In Clawson, R. W. and Alavi, A., eds., East-West Rivalry in the Third World: Security Issues and Regional Perspectives. Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 225–240.Google Scholar

Rotberg, R. I. (2002). The New Nature of Nation-State Failure. The Washington Quarterly, 25(3), 83–96.Google Scholar

Rothchild, D. S. (2001). The US Foreign Policy Trajectory on Africa. SAIS Review, 21(1), 179–211.Google Scholar

Rothchild, D., and Ravenhill, J. (1992). Retreat from Globalism: US Policy toward Africa in the 1990s. In de Kenneth, A., Oye, A., and Lieber, R. J., eds., Eagle in a New World: American Grand Strategy in the Post–Cold War Era. New York: HarperCollins, pp. 393–429.Google Scholar

Rouvez, A., Coco, M., and Paddack, J.-P. (1994). Disconsolate Empires: French, British and Belgian Military Involvement in Post-Colonial Sub-Saharan Africa. New York: University of America Press.Google Scholar

Rutherford, K. R. (2008). Humanitarianism under Fire: The US and the UN Intervention in Somalia. Boulder: Lynne Rienner.Google Scholar

Ryan, M. (2011). “War in Countries We Are Not at War with”: The “War on Terror” on the Periphery from Bush to Obama. International Politics, 48(2–3), 364–389.Google Scholar

Saideman, S. M. (1997). Explaining the International Relations of Secessionist Conflicts: Vulnerability versus Ethnic Ties. International Organization, 51(4), 721–753.Google Scholar

Salehyan, I. (2009). Rebels without Borders: State Boundaries, Transnational Opposition, and Civil Conflict. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar

Salehyan, I., and Gleditsch, K. S. (2006). Refugees and the Spread of Civil War. International Organization, 60(2), 335–366.Google Scholar

Salyk-Virk, M. (2020). Airstrikes, Proxy Warfare, and Civilian Casualties. New America, June 2. www.newamerica.org/international-security/reports/airstrikes-proxy-warfare-and-civilian-casualties-libya/.Google Scholar

Samba, D. (1997). Les Faux Complots d’Houphouet-Boigny. Paris: Khartala.Google Scholar

San-Akca, B. (2016). States in Disguise: Causes of State Support for Rebel Groups. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Sandbrook, R. (2000). Globalization and the Limits of Neoliberal Development Doctrine. Third World Quarterly, 21(6), 1071–1080.Google Scholar

Saunders, C. (2013). Military Intervention in Conflict Situations in Africa: Thoughts on South Africa’s Role. Strategic Review for Southern Africa, 35(2), 152–168.Google Scholar

Savun, B., and Gineste, C. (2019). From Protection to Persecution: Threat Environment and Refugee Scapegoating. Journal of Peace Research, 56(1), 88–102.Google Scholar

Scahill, J. (2014). The CIA’s Secret Sites in Somalia. The Nation, December 10. www.thenation.com/article/archive/cias-secret-sites-somalia/.Google Scholar

Schimmelfennig, F. (2003). The EU, NATO and the Integration of Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Schmitt-Grohé, S., and Uribe, M. (2010). The Optimal Rate of Inflation. In Friedman, B. M. and Woodfort, M., eds., Handbook of Monetary Economics. Vol. 3. Amsterdam: Elsevier/North-Holland, pp. 653–722.Google Scholar

Schneider, C. Q., and Wagemann, C. (2012). Set-Theoretic Methods for the Social Sciences: A Guide to Qualitative Comparative Analysis. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Scooners, I., and Graham, O. (1994). New Directions for Pastoral Development in Africa. Development in Practice, 4(3), 188–198.Google Scholar

Scorgie, L. (2011). Peripheral Pariah or Regional Rebel? The Allied Democratic Forces and the Uganda/Congo Borderland. The Round Table, 100(412), 79–93.Google Scholar

Selassie, B. H. (1980). Conflict and Intervention in the Horn of Africa. New York: Monthly Review Press.Google Scholar

Seligman, L. (2018). Shadowy US Drone War in Africa Set to Expand. Foreign Policy, September 7. https://foreignpolicy.com/2018/09/04/shadowy-u-s-drone-war-in-africa-set-to-expand/.Google Scholar

Seyferth, D. (2014). Senegal: An End to One of Africa’s Longest Conflicts? Atlantic, July 9. www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/africasource/senegal-an-end-to-one-of-africa-s-longest-civil-conflicts/.Google Scholar

Shubin, V., and Tokarev, A. (2001). War in Angola: A Soviet Dimension. Review of African Political Economy, 28(90), 607–618.Google Scholar

Simmel, G. (1956). The Functions of Social Conflict. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar

Sims, A., and Bergen, P. (2018). Airstrikes and Civilian Casualties in Libya since the 2011 NATO Intervention. https://d1y8sb8igg2f8e.cloudfront.net/documents/Airstrikes_and_Civilian_Casualties_in_Libya_FINAL.pdf.Google Scholar

Smith, A. (1996). To Intervene or Not to Intervene: A Biased Decision. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 40(1), 16–40.Google Scholar

Somerville, K. (1990). Foreign Military Intervention in Africa. London: Pinter.Google Scholar

Stoneman, C., and Cliffe, L. (1991). Zimbabwe: Politics, Economics and Society. New York: Continuum International Publishing.Google Scholar

Sundberg, R., Eck, K, and Kreutz, J. (2012). Introducing the UCDP Non-state Conflict Dataset. Journal of Peace Research, 49(2), 351–362.Google Scholar

Sundiata, I. K. (1990). Equatorial Guinea: Colonialism, State Terror, and the Search for Stability. Boulder: Westview Press.Google Scholar

Tadesse, M. (2002). Al-Itihad: Political Islam and Black Economy in Somalia: Religion, Money, Clans, and the Struggle for Supremacy. New York: Meag Printing Enterprise.Google Scholar

Tamm, H. (2016). The Origins of Transnational Alliances: Rulers, Rebels, and Political Survival in the Congo Wars. International Security, 41(1), 147–181.Google Scholar

Tanner, H. (1977). Sadat Orders Halt to Attacks in Libya, Heeding Arab Pleas. New York Times, July 25, p. 45. www.nytimes.com/1977/07/25/archives/sadat-orders-halt-to-attacks-in-libya-heeding-arab-pleas.html.Google Scholar

Tarar, A. (2006). Diversionary Incentives and the Bargaining Approach to War. International Studies Quarterly, 50(1), 169–188.Google Scholar

Taw, J. M. (2012). Mission Revolution: The US Military and Stability Operations. New York: Colombia University Press.Google Scholar

Teretta, M. (2014). Nation of Outlaws, State of Violence: Nationalism, Grassfields Tradition, and State Building in Cameroon. Athens: Ohio University.Google Scholar

Thiem, A. (2010). Set-Relational Fit and the Formulation of Transformational Rules in fsQCA. COMPASS Working Papers, 2010(61), 1–23. www.compasss.org/wpseries/Thiem2010.pdf.Google Scholar

Thies, C. G. (2013). The Roles of Bipolarity: A Role Theoretic Understanding of the Effects of Ideas and Material Factors on the Cold War. International Studies Perspectives, 14(3), 269–288.Google Scholar

Thompson, W. R., and Rasler, K. (1999). War, the Military Revolution(s) Controversy, and Army Expansion: A Test of Two Explanations of Historical Influences on European State Making. Comparative Political Studies, 32(1), 3–31.Google Scholar

Thompson, W., and Dreyer, D. (2011). Handbook of International Rivalries. New York: CQ Press.Google Scholar

Thorhallsson, B., and Steinsson, S. (2017). Small State Foreign Policy. In Thompson, W. R., ed., Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics. London: Oxford University Press. doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.484.Google Scholar

Thumerelle, C., and Le Prestre, P. (1997). The Straitjacket of New Freedom. In Le Prestre, P. G., ed., Role Quests in the Post-Cold War Era: Foreign Policies in Transition. Montreal: McGill University Press, pp. 131–160.Google Scholar

Tilly, C. (1975). Reflections on the History of State-Making. In Tilly, C., ed., The Formation of National States in Western Europe. Vol. 8, Studies in Political Development. Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 3–83.Google Scholar

Tinit, P. (2013). In Mali Fight, Chad Proves a Powerful Partner for France. Christian Science Monitor, March 7. www.csmonitor.com/World/Africa/2013/0307/In-Mali-fight-Chad-proves-a-powerful-partner-for-France.Google Scholar

Titeca, K., and Vlassenroot, K. (2012). Rebels without Borders in the Rwenzori Borderland? A Biography of the Allied Democratic Forces. Journal of Eastern African Studies, 6(1), 154–176.Google Scholar

Torres-Garcia, A. (1980). US Diplomacy and the North African War of Sands. The Journal of North African Studies, 18(2), 324–348.Google Scholar

Toweh, A., and Giahyue, J. H. (2015). Liberia Declared Ebola-Free, but Outbreak Continues in Guinea and Sierra Leone. Scientific American, May 11. www.scientificamerican.com/article/liberia-declared-ebola-free-but-outbreak-continues-in-guinea-and-sierra-leone/.Google Scholar

Turse, N. (2018). U.S. Military Says It Has a “Light Footprint” in Africa. These Documents Show a Vast Network of Bases. The Intercept , December 1. https://theintercept.com/2018/12/01/u-s-military-says-it-has-a-light-footprint-in-africa-these-documents-show-a-vast-network-of-bases/.Google Scholar

Utley, R. E. (2002). “Not to Do Less but to Do Better …”: French Military Policy in Africa. International Affairs, 78(1), 129–146.Google Scholar

Uzoigwe, G. N. (1985). European Partition and Conquest of Africa: An Overview. Boahen, A. A., ed., Africa under Colonial Domination 1880–1935. Vol VII of UNESCO General History of Africa. Paris: UNESCO, pp. 19–44.Google Scholar

Van de Walle, N. (2009). US Policy towards Africa: The Bush Legacy and the Obama Administration. African Affairs, 109(434), 1–21.Google Scholar

van Walraven, K. (2005). From Tamanrasset: The Struggle of Sawaba and the Algerian Connection, 1957–1966. The Journal of North African Studies, 10(3/4), 507–528.Google Scholar

van Walraven, K. (2013). The Yearning for Relief: A History of the Sawaba Movement in Niger. New York: Brill.Google Scholar

Vandiver, J. (2018). US Troops in Niger, Mali, and Cameroon to Receive “Danger Pay.” Stars and Stripes, March 8. www.stripes.com/news/us-troops-in-niger-mali-and-cameroon-to-receive-danger-pay-1.515678.Google Scholar

Verschave, F.-X. (1998). La Françafrique: Le Plus Long Scandale de la République. Paris: Stock.Google Scholar

Walker, S. G. (1987). Role Theory in Foreign Policy Analysis. Durham: Duke University Press.Google Scholar

Wallensteen, P., and Sollenberg, M. (1998). Armed Conflict and Regional Conflict Complexes, 1989–97. Journal of Peace Research, 35(5), 621–634.Google Scholar

Warbrick, C., and Yihdego, Z. (2007). Ethiopia’s Military Action against the Union of Islamic Courts and Others in Somalia: Some Legal Implications. International and Comparative Law Quarterly, 56(3), 666–676.Google Scholar

Warner, C. M. (2001). The Rise of the State System in Africa. Review of International Studies, 27(5), 65–89.Google Scholar

Wehner, L. E. (2015). Role Expectations as Foreign Policy: South American Secondary Powers’ Expectations of Brazil as a Regional Power. Foreign Policy Analysis, 11(4), 435–455.Google Scholar

Weiner, M. (1996). Bad Neighbors, Bad Neighborhoods: An Inquiry into the Causes of Refugee Flows. International Security, 21(1), 5–42.Google Scholar

Weiss, H. (2000). War and Peace in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Current African Issues, 22: 1–28. www.files.ethz.ch/isn/105528/22.pdf.Google Scholar

Wendt, A. (1999). Social Theory of International Politics. Vol. 67 of Cambridge Studies in International Relations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Wesley, M. (2018). Empire of Delusion: The Sun Sets on British Imperial Credibility. The Conversation, February 26. https://theconversation.com/empire-of-delusion-the-sun-sets-on-british-imperial-credibility-89309.Google Scholar

Westad, O. A. (2005). The Global Cold War: Third World Interventions and the Making of Our Times. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Whiteman, K. (1971). Guinea in West African Politics. The World Today, 27(8), 350–358.Google Scholar

Wiarda, H. (2011). American Foreign Policy in Regions of Conflict: A Global Perspective. New York: Springer.Google Scholar

Williams, C. (2018). Remembering the Moment that South African Troops Marched into Lesotho. Mail & Guardian, September 20. https://mg.co.za/article/2018-09-19-mandela-and-military-force-its-use-is-determined-by-the-situation/.Google Scholar

Winkler, M. A. (2015). Where’s the Growth? Africa: Investors Thrill to Population-Fueled GDP Growth and Reduced Inflation. Bloomberg, November 10. www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2015-11-10/sub-saharan-africa-thrills-investors-with-economic-growth.Google Scholar

Wish, N. B. (1980). Foreign Policy Makers and Their National Role Conceptions. International Studies Quarterly, 24(4), 532–554.Google Scholar

Woods, L. J., and Reese, T. R. (2008). Military Interventions in Sierra Leone: Lessons from a Failed State. Long War Occasional Paper 28. Combat Studies Institute Press, US Army Combined Arms Center, Fort Leavenworth, KS, USA.Google Scholar

Woodward, P. (1996). The Horn of Africa: State Politics and International Relations. London: Tauris Academic Studies.Google Scholar

Woodwell, D. (2007). Nationalism in International Relations: Norms, Foreign Policy, and Enmity. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar

World Bank (2015). Fragile and Conflict Affected Situations. Washington, DC: World Bank. https://data.worldbank.org/region/fragile-and-conflict-affected-situations.Google Scholar

World Bank (2017). World Development Indicators. The World Bank, DataBank. https://databank.worldbank.org/source/world-development-indicators.Google Scholar

Wright, J. (1989). Libya, Chad and the Central Sahara. London: Hurst.Google Scholar

Yakemtchouk, R. (1988). Les Deux Guerres du Shaba: Les Relations Entre la Belgique, la France et le Zaïre. Studia Diplomatica, 41(4–6): 375–742.Google Scholar

Yeh, Y.-Y., and Wu, C. K. S. (2020). Diversionary Behavior for Weak States: A Case Study of Taiwan. Journal of Asian and African Studies, 55(2), 221–234.Google Scholar

Yihdego, Z. W. (2007). Ethiopia’s Military Action against the Union of Islamic Courts and Others in Somalia: Some Legal Implications. The International and Comparative Law Quarterly, 56(3), 666–676.Google Scholar

Young, J. (1996). The Tigray and Eritrean People’s Liberation Front: A History of Tensions and Pragmatism. The Journal of Modern African Studies, 34(1), 105–120.Google Scholar

Young, J. (1999). Ethiopia’s Western Frontier: Gambella and Benishangul in Transition. The Journal of Modern African Studies, 37(2), 321–346.Google Scholar

Young, J. (2006). Eastern Sudan: Caught in a Web of External Interests. Review of African Political Economy, 33(109), 594–601.Google Scholar

Young, J. (2012). The Fate of Sudan: The Origins and Consequences of a Flawed Peace Process. London: Zed Books.Google Scholar

Yusuf, K., Kamp, M., Mugisha, M. B., and Ojok, D. (2016). Conflict and State Formation in South Sudan: The Logic of Oil Revenues in Influencing the Dynamics of Elite Bargains. Journal on Perspectives of African Democracy and Development, 1(1), 30–40.Google Scholar

Zacher, M. W. (1970). Dag Hammarskjold’s United Nations. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar

Zajec, O. (2018). French Military Operations. In Meijer, H. and Wyss, M., eds., The Handbook of European Defence Policies Forces. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 797–812.Google Scholar

Zartman, I. W. (1985). Ripe for Resolution: Conflict and Intervention in Africa. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Zartman, I. W. (1987). Foreign Relations of North Africa. The Annals of the Academy of Political Science and Social Sciences, 489(1), 13–27.Google Scholar

Zisenwine, D. (2012). Mohammed VI and Moroccan Foreign Policy. In Maddy-Weitzman, B. and Zisenwine, D., eds., Contemporary Morocco. New York: Routledge, pp. 82–93.Google Scholar

Zunes, S. (1995). Algeria, the Manghreb Union, and the Western Sahara Stalemate. Arab Studies Quarterly, 17(3), 23–36.Google Scholar