The general aim of philosophy, in one of the most simple and straightforwarddefinitions, is to try to find out how we can come to grips with reality.Philosophers are interested in finding out how we can develop knowledgeabout the world we live in and how we can describe and explain the phenomenain that world in order to gain deeper insights. They are also interested indeveloping solutions to tackle problematic issues and in reflecting on thesocial and ethical consequences. Yet in a world where we are faced withphenomena characterised by immense complexity, formulating an answer to thatquestion is neither simple nor straightforward. Indeed, the complex problemsof today pose a huge challenge to scientists. Trying to understand them andformulating theories to explain how they work is no small matter. Providingideas for possible solutions and anticipating their effects is even moredifficult. To better understand what the challenge actually entails, westart this first chapter by taking a closer look at the nature of complexproblems. These turn out to have a rather peculiar character, different inimportant respects from problems encountered in earlier stages of humanhistory.

Next, we examine how science can help satisfy our current knowledge needs. Weexplore how modern science has evolved and the vision of knowledgeproduction it entails. We review the useful insights and explanations it hasproduced. Yet as we investigate its foundations, it becomes clear that theassumptions underlying the standard scientific approachcannot simply be taken for granted. For one, not everyone agrees that theyapply to every area of science. Another reason is that these assumptionsfail when employed in the context of complex issues that scientists facetoday.

This gives cause for explicitly reflecting on the role of assumptions inscience in general. In doing so, we find that they are unavoidable. Innormal, everyday science, assumptions exercise an enormous influence on thechoices researchers make in their search for scientific explanations.