The leading figures in intelligence research – both past and present – are individuals who come from Western cultures. Because intelligence research and testing originate in Western cultures, it would be naïve to believe that Western culture does not influence the development of intelligence theories, research, and tests. As a result, many people argue that the perspectives of psychologists who study intelligence – and develop intelligence tests – are ethnocentric (e.g., Berry, 1974; Gardner, 2004; K. Richardson, 2002; Sternberg, 1985). In this viewpoint, intelligence, as understood by Western scientists, is at best too narrow. At worst, the concept is so foreign that it doesn’t even make sense to study or measure intelligence in non-Western individuals. Critics like Vernon (1965, 1969) say that Western views of intelligence are incompatible with views originating in other cultures and that one must consider these groups’ views of intelligence when studying mental 47 abilities.