This variable has been coded for both ESDP and enlargement cases. In the case of ESDP it is a ‘dummy’ variable measuring whether partisan veto players existed or not. The coding is the same as for enlargement except for the cases where partisan veto players appeared or disappeared as a result of elections. In the case of enlargement, the reference year is 2006; in the case of ESDP the period covered is 2005-2007. The coding for enlargement is provided below.

Austria

Two parties formed a coalition government in Austria from 2002 until the general election of October 2006: the ÖVP (Austrian People's Party) and the FPÖ (Austrian Freedom Party). In 2005 the BZÖ (Alliance for the Future of Austria) was created by members seceding from the Freedom Party (and led by the controversial Jörg Haider). This led to an ÖVP-BZÖ coalition. In the 2006 general election, the SPÖ (Social Democratic Party of Austria) won a wafer-thin majority, ending the ÖVP-BZÖ coalition. After long negotiations a grand coalition between FPÖ and ÖVP came into being in early 2007. Significant ideological differences existed in the ÖVP-BZÖ (and FPÖ) coalition, and this made the FPÖ and later the BZÖ important veto players. Smaller but nevertheless important ideological differences existed within the FPÖ-ÖVP coalition, which ruled from 2007 until 2008, when it collapsed. Taking into account the fractious nature of Austrian politics and the significant ideological differences amongst the main political parties that have formed a government, this condition is coded as one.

Belgium

The Belgian general election of 2003 led to a multi-party coalition between the Socialist Party (PS, winning 13 per cent of the vote); the Socialist Party Different Spirit (SPA/14.9 per cent); the Reformist Movement (MR/11.4 per cent); and the Flemish Liberals and Democrats (VLD/15.4). The ideological differences between the coalition partners were not substantial overall; however, on the issue of Turkey important differences did exist between the MR (which was more sceptical) and the rest of the coalition partners. The general election that took place in June 2007 was followed by a long period of instability in which the Francophone and Flemish parties have found it increasingly difficult to form a government. Taking these factors into consideration, the condition is coded as one.