One of the main aims of this book has been to argue for the contemporary relevance of cosmopolitanism as a normative critique of globalization. This is not to set up a basic dichotomy of cosmopolitanism and globalization, since globalization is multi-faceted and cosmopolitanism, too, is highly varied. Some of the most important expressions of cosmopolitanism emerged in the context of major social transformations of an epochal and global nature: the eastward expansion of the Hellenistic Empire of Alexander the Great; the rise Confucian cosmopolitanism in the fifth to second centuries BCE during the period of the Warring States; the revival of the cosmopolitan idea in Europe in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries as a result of the crisis of European absolutism; the re-emergence of cosmopolitanism in the aftermath of the Second World War; and, in the present day, the resurgence of cosmopolitanism with the post-sovereign state, the worldwide transformation of political community and the global crisis of capitalism. Rather than view cosmopolitanism as an alternative to globalization or to the nation-state – as some kind of utopian ideal of an alternative social and political order – the approach set out in this book has been to stress the embedded nature of cosmopolitanism in current societal developments. Globalization creates a world of enhanced connections, but does not itself constitute the cosmopolitan condition; instead it establishes preconditions for its emergence. Its capacity for transcendence is immanent rather than external.