Despite recent revisionist works, it seems quite difficult to argue with the idea that the break-up of the Carolingian Empire at the end of the ninth century led to something of a crisis in the Italian peninsula, including within the city of Rome. Although Giovanni Tabacco's description of the late ninth and early tenth centuries in Italy as ‘political anarchy’ may be overstating things, the disappearance of the more or less stable outside influence of the Carolingians does seem to have led to a quite striking level of instability and uncertainty among the civitates of Italy, in a way that should not be surprising when a polity is removed, willingly or otherwise, from a larger, more stable and secure union. Broadly speaking, the 880s and 890s can be summarised by the attempts at domination of Italian politics made by ‘French’ and ‘German’ factions, the leaders of which were Guy of Spoleto (889-94), and Berengar I (887-924), respectively. The late 880s and early 890s seem to have been, essentially, a quasi-civil war between these French and German factions. Although Berengar eventually won out by 898 (seemingly due principally to the death of most of his rivals, rather than any real competence on his part), it is very difficult to get away from a vision of a deeply uncertain and conflict-ridden late ninth century throughout most of Italy, including Rome.