Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-pjpqr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-01T02:53:41.158Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Haemorrhages in muscles of broiler chickens

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 September 2007

R. W. Kranen ,
E. Lambooij ,
C. H. Veerkamp ,
T. H. Van Kuppevelt  and
J. H. Veerkamp
R. W. Kranen
Affiliation:
Institute for Animal Science and Health, ID-Lelystad, Lelystad
E. Lambooij
Affiliation:
Institute for Animal Science and Health, ID-Lelystad, Lelystad
C. H. Veerkamp
Affiliation:
Poultry Processing Consultancy, Lieren
T. H. Van Kuppevelt
Affiliation:
Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Nijmegen, The Netherlands
J. H. Veerkamp
Affiliation:
Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Nijmegen, The Netherlands
Get access

Abstract

Haemorrhages in the muscles of broiler chickens are major quality defects which occur in all types of muscles and muscle parts. They are closely related to muscle injury and can be the result of trauma, strenuous muscle activity, exposure to extreme environmental conditions, restraining and electrical stunning. In this review the different types of haemorrhages are classified. A brief introduction on muscle morphology and blood supply is given to discuss the mechanisms that may cause haemorrhages and a survey of these mechanisms is presented. Some of the mechanisms, together with factors likely to affect the susceptibility of chickens to haemorrhages, are discussed in relation to rearing, transport, slaughter and processing of broiler chickens.

Keywords

Broiler chickenshaemorrhagesmuscles
Type
Research Article
Information
World's Poultry Science Journal , Volume 56 , Issue 2 , June 2000 , pp. 93 - 126
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2000

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aberle, E.D. and Stewart, T.S. (1983) Growth of fiber types and apparent fiber number in skeletal muscle of broiler- and layer-type chickens. Growth 47: 135–144Google ScholarPubMed
Albers, G. (1990) Correct feed restriction prevents ascites. Poultry (Misset) 6: 22–23Google Scholar
Alish, J. and Obdam, J. (1992) Electrical stunning of broilers, welfare and meat-quality aspects. Proceedings of EC Workshop on Pre-slaughter Handling and Stunrrirrg of Poulty, BrusselsBelgium pp. 53–60Google Scholar
Allen, D.G., LäNnergren, J. and Westerblad, H. (1995) Muscle cell function during prolonged activity: cellular mechanisms of fatigue. Experimental Physiology 80: 497–527CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Amemiya, T. (1989) Effects of vitamin E and selenium deficiencies on rat capillaries. International Journal for Vitamin and Nutrition Research 59: 122–126Google ScholarPubMed
Angel, S., Weinberg, Z.G., Polishuk, O., Heit, M., Plavnik, I. and Bartov, I. (1985) A connection between a dietary coccidiostat and skin tears of female broiler chickens. Poultry Science 64: 294–296CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Archer, R.K. (1971) Blood coagulation. In: Physiology and Biochemistry of the Domestic Fowl, (Bell, D.J. and Freeman, B.M., Eds), Volume 2, Academic Press, London, pp. 897–911Google Scholar
Armstrong, R.B. (1984) Mechanisms of exercise-induced delayed onset muscular soreness: a brief review. Medicine and Science Sports and Exercise 16: 529–538CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ashmore, C.R. and Doerr, L. (1971) Postnatal development of fibre type in normal and dystrophic skeletal muscle of the chick. Experimental Neurology 30: 431–446CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aulie, A. and Tøien, Ø.(1989) Shivering in aerobic and anaerobic muscles in bantams (Gallus domesticus). In: Physiology of Cold Adaptation in Birds (Bech, C. and Reinertsen, R.E., Eds), Plenum Press, New York, pp. 77–82CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bailey, T.A., Wernery, U., Naldo, J. and Samour, J.H. (1997) Plasma concentration of creatine kinase and lactate dehydrogenase in Houbara Bustards (Chlamydotis undulata macqueenii) immediately following capture. Comparative Haematology International 1: 113–116CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bell, D.J. (1971) Plasma glucose. In: Physiology and Biochemistry of the Domestic Fowl (Bell, D.J. and Freeman, B.M., Eds), Volume 2, Academic Press, London, pp. 913–920Google Scholar
Bilgili, S.F. (1992) Electrical stunning of broilers: basic concepts and carcass quality implications: a review. Journal of Applied Poultry Research 1: 135–146CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Biswas, N.K., Dalapati, M.R. and Bhowmik, M.K. (1995) Ascites syndrome in broiler chicken: observations on certain biochemical and pathological changes. Indian Journal of Animal Science 65: 1068–1072Google Scholar
Bogin, E., Avidar, Y., Pech-Waffenschmidt, V., Doron, Y., Israeli, B.-A. and Kevkhayev, E. (1996) The relationship between heat stress, survivability and blood composition of the domestic chicken. European Journal of Clinical Chemistry and Clinical Biochemistry 34: 463–469Google ScholarPubMed
Bowman, W.C. and Marshall, I.G. (1971) Muscle. In: Physiology and Biochemistry of the Domestic Fowl (Bell, D.J. and Freeman, B.M., Eds), Volume 2, Academic Press, London, pp. 707–737Google Scholar
Butler, E.J. (1983) Role of trace elements in metabolic processes. In: Physiology and Biochemistry of the Domestic Fowl (Freeman, B.M., Ed.), Volume 4, Academic Press, London, pp. 175–189Google Scholar
Carafoli, E. (1987) Intracellular calcium homeostasis. Annual Review of Biochemistry 56: 395–433CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chen, C.-L., Sangiah, S., Chen, H., Roder, J.D. and Shen, Y. (1994) Effects of heat stress on Na+, K+-ATPase, Mg2+-activated ATPase, and Na+-ATPase activities of broiler chickens vital organs. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health 41: 345–356CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chiasson, R.B. and Goulet, E.W. (1983) Muscle fiber types in the dystrophic puboischiofemoralis of commercial broilers. Avian Diseases 28: 489–496CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cox, C.J. and May, K.N. (1970) Determining rates of bruising in commercial broilers. Poultry Science 49: 1756–1757CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davis, J.F. and Vasilatos-Younken, R. (1995) Markedly reduced pancreatic glucagon levels in broiler chickens with spiking mortality syndrome. Avian Diseases 39: 417–419CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Deaton, J.W. (1995) The effect of early feed restriction on broiler performance. Poultry Science 74: 1280–1286CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Doerr, J.A. and Hamilton, P.B. (1981) Aflatoxicosis and intrinsic coagulation in broiler chickens. Poultry Science 60: 1406–1411CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Doerr, J.A., Wyatt, R.D. and Hamilton, P.B. (1975) Investigation and standardization of prothrombin times in chickens. Poultry Science 54: 969–980CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Doerr, J.A., Wyatt, R.D. and Hamilton, P.B. (1976) Impairment of coagulation function during aflotoxicosis in young chickens. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology 35: 437–446CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eckman, M.K. (1994) Chemicals used by the poultry industry. Poultry Science 73: 1429–1432CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ellis, C.G., Mathieu-Costello, O., Potter, R.F., Macdonald, I.C. and Groom, A.C. (1990) Effect of sarcomere length on total capillary length in skeletal muscle: In viva evidence for longitudinal stretching of capillaries. Microvascular Research 40: 63–72CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Evans, W.J. and Cannon, J.G. (1991) The metabolic effects of exercise-induced muscle damage. Exercise and Sports Science Review 19: 99–125CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fajardo, L.F. (1984) Pathological effects of hyperthermia in normal tissues. Cancer Research 44: 4826–4835SGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fantel, A.G. (1996) Reactive oxygen species in developmental toxicity: review and hypothesis. Teratology 53: 196–2173.0.CO;2-2>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Feldman, B.F. (1992) Diagnostic approaches to coagulation and fibrinolytic disorders. Seminars in Veterinary Medicine and Surgery (Small Animal) 7: 315–322Google ScholarPubMed
Fernandez, A., Verde, M.T., Gascon, M., Ramos, J., Gomez, J., Luco, D.F. and Chavez, G. (1994) Variations of clinical biochemical parameters of laying hens and broiler chickens fed aflatoxin-containing feed. Avian Pathology 23: 37–47CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fisher, B.D., Baracos, V.E., Shnitka, T.K., Mendryk, S.W. and Reid, D.C. (1990) Ultrastructural events following acute muscle trauma. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 22: 185–193Google ScholarPubMed
Folkow, B., Gaskell, P. and Waaler, B.A. (1970) Blood flow through limb muscles during heavy rhythmic exercise. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica 80: 61–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Freeman, B.M. (1971) Body temperature and thermoregulation. In: Physiology and Biochemistry of the Domestic Fowl (Bell, D.J. and Freeman, B.M., Eds), Volume 2, Academic Press, London, pp. 1115–1151Google Scholar
Freeman, B.M., Kettlewell, P.J., Manning, A.C.C. and Berry, P.S. (1984) Stress of transportation for broilers. Veterinary Record 114: 286–287CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fridén, J. and Lieber, R. (1992) Structural and mechanical basis of exercise induced muscle injury. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 24: 521–530CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fridén, J.Sfakianos, EN. and Hargens, A.R. (1986) Muscle soreness and intramuscular fluid pressure: comparison between eccentric and concentric load. Journal of Applied Physiology 61: 2175–2179CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gilbert, K.V. and Devine, C.E. (1982) Effect of electrical stunning on petechial hemorrhages and on the blood pressure in lambs. Meat Science 7: 197–207CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grandin, T. (1980) Bruises and carcass damage. International Journal of Animal Probes 1: 121–137Google Scholar
Granot, I., Bartov, I., Plavnik, I., Wax, E., Hurwitz, S. and Pines, M. (1991) Increased skin tearing in broilers and reduced collagen synthesis in skin in vivo and in vitro in response to the coccidiostat halofuginone. Poultry Science 70: 1559–1563CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Granot, I., Halevy, O., Hurwitz, S. and Pines, M. (1993) Halofuginone: an inhibitor of collagen type I synthesis. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1156: 107–112CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gray, S.D., Carlsson, E. and Staub, N.C. (1967) Site of increased vascular resistance during isometric muscle contraction. American Journal of Physiology 213: 683–689CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gregory, N.G. (1989) Stunning and slaughter. In: Processing of Poultry (Mead, G.C., Ed.), Elsevier Scientific Publications Ltd, Essex pp. 31–63Google Scholar
Gregory, N.G. (1994) Preslaughter handling, stunning and slaughter. Meat Science 36: 45–56CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gregory, N.G. and Austin, S.D. (1992) Causes of trauma in broilers arriving dead at poultry processing plants. Veterinary Record 131: 501–503CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gregory, N.G. and Wilkins, L.J. (1989) Effect of stunning current on carcase quality in chickens. Veterinary Record 124: 530–532CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gregory, N.G. and Wilkins, L.J. (1990a) The role of electrical stunning, bleeding and plucking efficiency on the downgrading of chicken carcases. Veterinary Record 127: 331–333Google ScholarPubMed
Gregory, N.G. and Wilkins, L.J. (1990b) Broken bones in chickens: effect of stunning and processing in broilers. British Poultry Science 31: 53–58CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gregory, N.G. and Wotton, S.B. (1987) Effect of electrical stunning on the electroencepholo- gram in chickens. British Veterinary Journal 143: 175–183CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gregory, N.G. and Wotton, S.B. (1989) Effect of electrical stunning on somatosensory evoked potentials in chickens. British Veterinary Journal 145: 159–164CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gregory, N.G., Wilkins, L.J. and Wotton, S.B. (1991) Effect of electrical stunning frequency on ventricular fibrillation, downgrading and broken bones in broilers, hens and quails. British Veterinary Journal 147: 71–77CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gregory, N.G., Wilkins, L.J., Wotton, S.B. and Middleton, A.L.V. (1995) Effects of current and waveform on the incidence of breast meat haemorrhages in electrically stunned broiler chicken carcases. Veterinary Record 137: 263–265CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Griminger, P. (1984) Vitamin K in animal nutrition: deficiency can be fatal. Feedstuffs (Minneapolis) 17: 24–25Google Scholar
Hall, S. (1983) Status epilepticus. American Family Physician 28: 117–121Google ScholarPubMed
Hal Taylor, M. and Helbacka, N.V.L. (1968) Field studies of bruised poultry. Poultry Science 47 1166–1169CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harris, A.G., Leiderer, R., Peer, F. and Messmer, K. (1996) Skeletal muscle microvascular and tissue injury after varying durations of ischemia. American Journal of Physiology 40: H2388–2398Google Scholar
Harvey, A.L. and Marshall, I.G. (1983) Muscle. In: Physiology and Biochemistry of the Domestic Fowl (Freeman, B.M., Ed), Volume 4, Academic Press, London, pp. 219–233Google Scholar
Hasegawa, A., Suzuki, S., Matsumoto, Y. and Okubo, T. (1996) In vivo fatiguing contraction of rat diaphragm produces hydroxyl radicals. Free Radical Biology and Medicine 22: 349–354CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hassan, S., Hakkarainen, J., Jönsson, L. and Työppönen, J. (1990) Histopathological and biochemical changes associated with selenium and vitamin E deficiency in chicks. Journal of Veterinary Medicine A 37: 708–720CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hasselman, C.T., Best, T.M., Seaber, A.V. and Garrett, W.E. Jr (1995) A threshold and continuum of injury during active stretch of rabbit skeletal muscle. American Journal of Sports Medicine 23: 65–73CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heath, G.E., Thaler, A.M. and James, W.O. (1994) A survey of stunning methods currently used during slaughter of poultry in commercial poultry plants. Journal of Applied Poultry Research 3: 297–302CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Henderson, S.A., Graham, K. and Mollan, R.A. (1992) Serum and other calcium fractions in patients after severe muscoskeletal trauma. Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research 275: 306–311CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hillebrand, S.J.W. (1993) The sensory quality of turkey meat. PhD Thesis, University of Utrecht, The NetherlandsGoogle Scholar
Hillebrand, S.J.W., Lambooy, E. and Veerkamp, C.H. (1996) The effects of alternative electrical and mechanical stunning methods on hemorrhaging and meat quality of broiler breast and thigh muscles. Poultry Science 75: 664–671CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hocking, P.M. (1994) Assessment of the welfare of food restricted male broiler breeder poultry with musculoskeletal disease. Research in Veterinary Science 57: 28–34CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hocking, P.M. and Lynch, M. (1991) Histopathology of antitrochanteric degeneration in adult female turkeys of four strains of different mature size. Research in Veterinary Science 51: 327–331CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hocking, EM., Maxwell, M.H. and Mitchell, M.A. (1994) Haematology and blood composition at two ambient temperatures in genetically fat and lean adult broiler breeder females fed ad libitum or restricted throughout life. British Poultry Science 35: 799–807CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hodges, R.D. (1974) The Histology of the Fowl. Academic Press, LondonGoogle Scholar
Holloszy, J.O. and Coyle, E.F. (1984) Adaptations of skeletal muscle to endurance exercise and their metabolic consequences. Journal of Applied Physiology 56: 831–838CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
HOLMSTRÖM, A. and LARSSON, J. (1985) Local changes of skeletal muscle electrolytes and water after high-energy trauma. Acta Chirurgica Scandinavica 151: 115–119Google ScholarPubMed
HolmströM, A., Lund, N. and Lewis, D.H. (1985) Local skeletal muscle surface oxygen pressure fields after high-energy trauma. Microcirculation, Endothelium and Lymphatics 2: 293–311Google ScholarPubMed
Hussmann, J., Zamboni, W.A., Russell, R.C., Roth, A.C., Kucan, J.O., Suchy, H., Bush, K., Bradley, T. and Brown, R.E. (1995) A model for recording the microcirculatory changes associated with standardized electrical injury of skeletal muscle. Journal of Surgical Research 59: 725–732CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Iwamoto, H., Hara, Y., Ono, Y. and Takahara, H. (1992) Breed differences inthe histochemical properties of the M. iliotihialis lateralis myofibre of domestic cocks. British Poultry Science 33: 321–328CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Iwamoto, H., Hara, Y., Ono, Y. and Takahara, H. (1993) Breed differences in the histochemical properties of the M. pubo-ischio-femoralis pars medialis myofibre of domestic cocks. British Poultry Science 34: 309–322CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jackson, M.J., Jones, D.A. and Edwards, R.H.T. (1984) Experimental skeletal muscle damage: the nature of the calcium activated degenerative processes. European Journal of Clinical Investigation 14: 369–374CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jerusalem, F. (1986) The microcirculation of muscle. In: Myology (Engel, A.G. and Bonker, B.Q., Eds), McGraw-Hill, New York, pp. 343–356Google Scholar
Jones, G.P.D. (1994) Energy and nitrogen metabolism and oxygen use by broilers susceptible to ascites and grown at three environmental temperatures. British Poultry Science 35: 97–105CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, J.M. (1986) Review: application of science and technology to poultry meat processing. Journal of Food Technology 21: 663–681CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Julian, R.J. (1989) Lung volume of meat-type chickens. Avian Diseases 33: 174–176CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Julian, R.J. (1993) Ascites in poultry. Avian Pathology 22: 419–454CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kami, K., Masuhara, M., Kashiba, H., Kawai, Y., Noguchi, K. and Senba, E. (1993) Changes of vinculin and extracellular matrix components following blunt trauma to rat skeletal muscle. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 25: 832–840CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kan, C.A. (1993) Blood and haemorrhages in slaughtered broilers. A major quality defect. World Poultry Misset 9(3): 43–45Google Scholar
Kannan, G., Heath, J.L., Wabeck, C.J. and Mench, J.A. (1997) Shackling of broilers: effects on stress responses and breast meat quality. British Poultry Science 38: 323–332CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Karatzas, C.N. and Zarkadas, C.G. (1989) Comparison of the amino acid composition of the intracellular and extracellular matrix protein fractions isolated from avian skeletal muscles. Poultry Science 68: 811–824CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kettlewell, P.J., and Hallworth, R.N. (1990) Electrical stunning of chickens. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research 47: 139–151CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kiessling, K-H. (1977) Muscle structure and function in the goose, quail, pheasant, guinea hen, and chicken. Comparative Biocheinistry and Physiology 57B: 287–292Google Scholar
Knochel, J.P. (1993) Mechanisms of rhabdomyolysis. Current Opinion in Rheumatology 5: 725–731CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Koelkebeck, K.W. and Odom, T.W. (1994) Laying hen responses to acute heat stress and carbon dioxide supplementation: I Blood gas changes and plasma lactate accumulation. Compavativr, Biochemistry and Physiology 107A: 603–606CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kotula, A.W. and Helbacka, N.V. (1966) Blood volume of live chickens and influence of slaughter technique on blood loss. Poultry Science 45: 684–404CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kuipers, H. (1993) Exercise-induced muscle damage. International Journal of Sports Medicine 15: 132–135CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lambooy, E. and Pieterse, C. (1997) Alternative stunning methods for poultry. In: Proceedings of the Satellite Symposium on Developments of New Humane Stunning and Related Processing Methods for Poultry to Improve Product Quality and Consumer Accepfability (Lambooy, E., Ed.), European Poultry Meat and Egg Quality Symposia, World's Poultry Science Association, Poznan, Poland pp. 7–14Google Scholar
Lash, J.M. (1996) Regulation of skeletal muscle blood flow during contractions. Proceedings of the Society for Experiinen tal Biology and Medicine 211: 218–235CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Laughlin, M.H. (1987) Skeletal muscle blood flow capacity: role of muscle pump in exercise hyperemia. American Journal of Physiology 253: H993–1004Google ScholarPubMed
Leet, N.G., Devine, C.E. and Gavey, A.B. (1977) The histology of blood splash in lamb. Meat Science 1: 229–234CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lieber, R.L. and Fridén, J. (1993) Muscle damage is not a function of muscle force but active muscle strain. Journal of Applied Physiology 74: 520–526CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lum, H. and Malik, A.B. (1996) Mechanisms of increased endothelial permeability. Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology 74: 787–800Google ScholarPubMed
Mandrup, M. (1964) The effect of electrical stunning on the blood pressure in pigs in comparison to the appearance of haemorrhages in lungs and musculature. In: Proceedings of the 10th European Meeting of Meat Research Workers, RoskildeDenmarkGoogle Scholar
Mann, K.G., Krishnaswamy, S. and Lawson, J.H. (1992) Surface-dependent hemostasis. Seminars in Hematology 29: 213–226Google ScholarPubMed
Martrenchar, A., Morisse, J.P., Huonnic, D. and Cotte, J.P. (1997) Influence of stocking density on some behavioural, physiological and productivity traits of broilers. Veterinary Research 28: 473–480Google ScholarPubMed
Mathieu-Costello, O. (1993). Comparative aspects of muscle capillary supply. Annual Review of Physiology 55: 503–525CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maxwell, M.H., Robertson, G.W. and Spence, S. (1986a) Studies on an ascitic syndrome in young broilers 1. Ilaematology and pathology. Avian Pathology 15: 511–524CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maxwell, M.H., Robertson, G.W. and Spence, S. (1986b) Studies on an ascitic syndrome in young broilers 2. Ultrastructure. Avian Pathology 15: 525–538CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maxwell, M.H., Spence, S., Robertson, G.W. and Mitchell, M.A. (1990) Haematological responses of broiler chicks to hypoxia. Avian Pathology 19: 23–40CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maxwell, M.H., Robertson, G.W. and Mccorquodale, C.C. (1992) Whole blood and plasma viscosity values in normal and ascitic broiler chickens. British Poultry Science 33: 871–877CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
May, J.D., Deaton, J.W. and Branton, S.L. (1987) Body temperature of acclimated broilers during exposure to high temperature. Poultry Science 66: 378–380CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mayes, F.J. (1980) The incidence of bruising in broiler flocks. British Poultry Science 21: 505–509CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mazzoni, M.C, Cragoe, E.J. Jr, and Arfors, K.E. (1994) Systemic blood acidosis in low-flow ischemia induces capillary luminal narrowing. International Journal of Microcirculation 14: 144–150CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Milne, C.J. (1988) Rhabdomyolysis, myoglobinuria and exercise. Sports Medicine 6: 93–106CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mitchell, M.A. and Kettlewell, P.J. (1993) Catching and transport of broiler chickens. In: Proceedings of the 4th European Symposium on Poultry Welfare, EdinburghUK pp. 219–229Google Scholar
Mitchell, M.A. and Kettlewell, P.J. (1994) Road transportation of broiler chickens: induction of physiological stress. World's Poultry Science Journal 50: 57–59CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mitchell, M.A. and Sandercock, D.A. (1994) Age dependent changes in plasma creatine kinase activity in broiler chickens. In: Proceedings of the 9th European Poultry Conference, Volume 1, GlasgowUK pp. 266–267Google Scholar
Mitchell, M.A. and Sandercock, D.A. (1995) Creatine kinase isoenzyme profiles in the plasma of the domestic fowl (Gallus domesticus): effects of acute heat stress. Research in Veterinary Science 59: 30–34CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mohan Raj, A.B. (1997) Gas stunning: bird welfare and product quality. In: Proceedings of the Satellite Symposium OM Developments of New Humane Sturnzing and Related Processing Methods for Poultry to Improve Product Quality and Consumer Acceptability(Lambooy, E., Ed.), European Poultry Meat and Egg Quality Symposia, World's Poultry Science Association, Poznan, Poland, pp. 7–14Google Scholar
Mohan Raj, A.B., Grey, T.C., Audsley, A.R. and Gregory, N.G. (1990) Effect of electrical and gaseous stunning on the carcass and meat quality of broilers. British Poultry Science 31: 725–733Google Scholar
Moye, R.J. Jr, Washburn, K.W. and Huston, T.M. (1969) Effects of environmental temperature on erythrocyte numbers and size. Poultry Science 48: 1683–1686CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nayler, W.G. (1991) Vascular injury: mechanisms and manifestations. American Journal of Mediciiie 90(4B): 8S–13S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nicol, C.J. and Scott, G.B. (1990) Pre-slaughter handling and transport of broiler chickens. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 28: 57–73CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Noonan, T.J., Best, T.M., Seaber, A.V. and Garrett, W.E. Jr, (1994) Identification of a threshold for skeletal muscle injury. American Journal of Sports Medicine 22: 257–261CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Odom, T.W., Rosenbaum, L.M. and Hargis, B.M. (1992) Evaluation of vectorelectro-cardiographic analysis of young broiler chickens as a predictive index for susceptibility to ascites syndrome. Avian Diseases 36: 78–83CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ono, Y., Iwamoto, H. and Takahara, H. (1993) The relationship between muscle growth and the growth of different fiber types in the chicken. Poultry Science 72: 568–576CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Petersen, G.V., Carr, D.H., Davies, A.S. and Pickett, B.T. (1986) The effect of different methods of electrical stunning of lambs on blood pressure and muscular activity. Meat Science 16: 1–15CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Poels, P.J.E. and Gabreels, F.J.M. (1993) Rhabdomyolysis: a review of the literature. Clinical Neurology and Neurosurgcry 95: 175–192CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pollanen, M.S., Deck, J.H.N., Boutilier, L. and Davidson, G. (1992) Lesions of the tunica media in traumatic rupture of vertebral arteries: histological and biochemical studies. Canadian Journal of Neurological Sciences 19: 53–56CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reilly, J.P. (1994) Scales of reaction to electric shock: thresholds and biophysical mechanisms. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 720: 21–37CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reiner, G., Hartmann, J. and Dzapo, V. (1995) Skeletal muscle sarcoplasmic calcium regulation and sudden death syndrome in chickens. British Poultry Science 36: 667–675CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Remignon, H., Gardahaut, M.-F., Marche, G. and Ricard, E-H. (1995) Selection for rapid growth increases the number and the size of muscle fibers without changing their typing in chickens. Journal of Muscle Research and Cell Motility 16: 95–102CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ristic, M. (1983) Influence of electrical stunning on the meat quality of broilers. In: Proceedings of the 6th European Symposium on the Quality of Poultry Meat, PloufragonFrance pp. 310–317Google Scholar
Sams, A.R. and Janky, D.M. (1990) Research note: simultaneous histochemical determination of three fiber types in single sections of broiler skeletal muscles. Poultry Science 69: 1433–1436CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sandercock, D.A., Hunter, R.R., Nute, G.R., Hocking, P.M. and Mitchell, M.A. (1999) Physiological responses to acute heat stress in broilers: implications for meat quality. In: Proceedings of the XIV Etiropean Symposium on the Quality of Poultry Meat, BolognaItaly p. 271–276Google Scholar
Savory, C.J. (1995) Broiler welfare: problems and prospects. Archiv für Geflügelkunde, Sonderheff 1: 48–52Google Scholar
Savory, C.J., Maros, K. and Rutter, S.M. (1993) Assesment of hunger in growing chickens in relation to a commercial restricted feeding programme. Animal Welfare 2: 131–152CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scheele, C.W. (1996) Ascites in chickens. Oxygen consumption requirement related to its occurrence. PhD Thesis, University of Wageningen, The NetherlandsGoogle Scholar
Schreurs, F.J.G. (1998) Post-mortem changes in chicken muscle. Some key biochemical processes involved in the conversion of muscle to meat. Dissertation, Landbouwuniverstiteit Wageningen, The NetherlandsGoogle Scholar
Schütt, I. (1982) Auswirkungen einer tierschutzgerechten Electrobetäubung bei Schlachtgeflugel auf der Ausblutungsgrad und die pH-werte-Entwiklung der Tierkorper. Inaugural Dissertation, Freien Universität, Berlin, GermanyGoogle Scholar
Shaw, ED., Weidemann, J.F. and Baxter, R.I. (1971) Vaso-active drugs and the occurrence of intramuscular ecchymotic haemorrhages in the electrically stunned rat. Research in Veterinary Science 12: 480–483CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shepherd, J.T. (1983) Circulation to skeletal muscle. In: Handbook of Physiology Swtion 2: The Cardiovascular System, Volume III, Part 1.Peripheral Circulation and Orgun Bloodflow (Shepherd, J.T., Abboud, EM. and Geiger, S.R., Eds), American Physiological Society, Bethesda, Maryland, USA pp. 319–370Google Scholar
Shlosberg, A., Zadikov, I., Bendheim, U., Handji, V. and Berman, E. (1992) The effects of poor ventilation, low temperatures, type of feed and sex of bird on the development of ascites in broilers. Physiopathological factors. Avian Pathology 21: 369–382CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sigrist, T., Markwalder, C. and Dirnhofer, R. (1990) Alterations of skeletal muscle in death due to hypothermia. Zeitschrift für Rechtsmedizin 103: 463–472CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Somer, T. and Meiselman, H.J. (1993) Disorders of blood viscosity. Annates of Medicin 25: 31–39Google ScholarPubMed
Sosnicki, A.A. and Wilson, B.W. (1991) Pathology of turkey skeletal muscle: implications for the poultry industry. Food Structure 10: 317–326Google Scholar
Sosnicki, A.A., Cassens, R.G., Mcintyre, D.R. and Vimini, R.G. (1988) Structural alterations in oedematous and apparently normal skeletal muscle of domestic turkey. Avian Pathology 17: 775–791CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sosnicki, A.A., Cassens, R.G., Mcintyre, D.R., Vimini, R.J. and Greaser, M.L. (1989) Incidence of microscopically detectable degenerative characteristics in skeletal muscle of turkey. British Poultry Science 30: 69–80CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sosnicki, A.A., Cassens, R.G., Vimini, R.J. and Greaser, M.L. (1991a) Distribution of capillaries in normal and ischemic turkey skeletal muscle. Poultry Science 70: 343–348CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sosnicki, A.A., Cassens, R.G., Vimini, R.J. and Greaser, M.L. (1991b) Histopathological and ultrastructural alterations of turkey skeletal muscle. Poultry Science 70: 349–357CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sparrey, J.M. and Kettlewell, P.J. (1994) Shackling of poultry: is it a welfare problem? World's Poultry Science Journal 50: 167–176CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sparrey, J.M., Paice, M.E.R. and Kettlewell, P.J. (1992) Model of current pathways in electrical water bath stunners used for poultry. British Poultry Science 33:907–916CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sparrey, J.M., Kettlewell, P.J., Paice, M.E.R. and Whetlor, W.C. (1993) Development of a constant current water bath stunner for poultry processing. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research 56: 267–274CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spraker, T.R., Adrian, W.J. and Lance, W.R. (1987) Capture myopathy in wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavu)following trapping, handling and transportation in Colorado. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 23: 447–453CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stadhouders, A.M. (1981) Cellular calcium homeostasis, mitochondria and muscle cell disease. In: Mitochondria and Muscular Diseases (Busch, H.F.M., Jennekens, F.G.I. and Scholte, H.R., Eds), Mefar B.V., Beetsterzwaag, The Netherlands pp. 77–88Google Scholar
Stauber, W.T., Fritz, V.K. and Dahlmann, B. (1990) Extracellular matrix changes following blunt trauma to rat skeletal muscles. Experimental and Molecular Puthology 52: 69–86CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stephan, E. and Dzapo, V. (1996) Histometric investigation of the breast muscle of laying and meat genotype in the coarse of gaining weight. Archiv für Geflilügelkunde 61: 62–65Google Scholar
Stites, D.P., Stobo, J.D. and Vivian Wells, J. (Eds) (1987) Basic and Clinical Immunoloy, Appleton and Lange, Norwalk, Connecticut, USAGoogle Scholar
Stolz, J.L., Rosenbaum, L.M., Jeong, D. and Odom, T.W. (1992) Ascites syndrome mortality and cardiological responses of broiler chickens subjected to cold exposure. Poultry Science 71 (Supplement 1): 4 (Abstract)Google Scholar
Sturkie, P.D. (Ed.) (1976) Avian Physiology, 3rd Edition, Springer-Verlag, BerlinCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Suzuki, E.Y., Early, R.J. and Patterson, P.H. (1994) Energy metabolism in isolated chick (Gallus domesticus) gastrocnemius and tilapia (Tilapia rnossumbica) epaxial muscle at various temperatures in vitro. Comparative Biocherrzemistry and Physiology 109: 139–150CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Swatland, H.J. (1990) A note on the growth of connective tissues binding turkey muscle fibers together. Cariadian Institute of Food Science Technology Journal 23: 239–241CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trafton, P.G. (1996) Blunt popliteal vascular injuries: combined trauma to integument, skeleton, muscle, nerve, and vessels. Journal of Trauma 40: 669–670CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tsong, T.Y. (1991) Electroporation of cell membranes. BiophysicNl Journal 60: 297–306CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tsong, T.Y. and GROSS, C.J. (1994) Reversibility of thermally induced denaturation of cellular proteins. Annals of New York Academy of Sciences 720: 65–78CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tung, H.-T., Smith, J.W. and Hamilton, P.B. (1971) Aflotoxicosis and bruising in the chicken. Poultry Science 50: 795–800CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Uijttenboogaart, T.G. (1997) Effects of gas and electrical stunning methods on meat quality. In: Proceedings of the Satellite Symposiuni on Developments of New Humane Stunning and Related Processiizg Methods for Poirlty to Improve Product Quality and Consuiner Acceptability (Lambooy, E., Ed.), European Poultry Meat and Egg Quality Symposia, World's Poultry Science Association, Poznan, Poland pp. 25–33Google Scholar
Veerkamp, C.H. (1988) What is the right current to stun and kill broilers? Poultry Misset 4: 30–31Google Scholar
Veerkamp, C.H. (1993) Future aspects of research prior and during slaughter. Poultry International, June: 38–43Google Scholar
Veerkamp, C.H. and DE VRIES, A.W. (1983) Influence of electrical stunning on quality aspects of broilers. In: Stunning of Animals for Slaughter (Eikelenboom, G., Ed.), Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, The Hague, The Netherlands pp. 197–207Google Scholar
Ward, P.A. (1996) Role of complement in lung inflammatory injury. American Journal o f Pathology 149: 1081–1086Google ScholarPubMed
Warrington, R. (1974) Electrical stunning: a review of the literature. Veterinary Bulletin 44: 617–635Google Scholar
Warriss, P.D., Kestin, S.C., Brown, S.N. and Bevis, E.A. (1988) Depletion of glycogen reserves in fasting broiler chickens. British Poultry Science 29: 149–154CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Warriss, P.D., Bevis, E.A., Brown, S.N. and Edwards, E. (1992) Longer journeys to processing plants are associated with higher mortality in broiler chickens. British Poultry Science 33: 201–206CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weaver, J.C. (1994) Molecular basis for cell membrane electroporation. Annals of New York Academy of Sciences 720: 141–152CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Webster, A.J.F., Tuddenham, A., Saville, C.A. and Scott, G.B. (1993) Thermal stress on chickens in transit. British Poultry Science 34: 267–277CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
West, J.B. and Mathieu-Costello, O. (1992a) Stress failure of pulmonary capillaries: role in lung and heart disease. Lancet 340: 762–767CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
West, J.B. and Mathieu-Costello, O. (1992b) Strength of the pulmonary blood-gas barrier. Respiration Physiology 88: 141–148CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilson, J.G. and Brunson, C.C. (1968) The effects of handling and slaughter method on the incidence of hemorrhagic thighs in broilers. Poultry Science 47: 1315–1318CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Woolley, S.C., Borthwick, F.J.W. and Gentle, M.J. (1986) Tissue resistivities and current pathways and their importance in pre-slaughter stunning of chickens. British Poultry Science 27: 301–306CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed