I gratefully acknowledge the support of the following institutions in researching and writing this article: the National Council for Eurasian and East European Research; the Edwin C. and Elizabeth A. Whitehead Fellowship at the Institute for Advanced Study; the Harry Frank Guggenheim Foundation, and the American Council of Learned Societies/ National Endowment for the Humanities Fellowship. For constructive comments on earlier versions of this paper, I wish to thank Yanni Kotsonis, Eric Lohr, David Moon, Ekaterina Pravilova, Michael Reynolds, David Rich, Alfred Rieber Charles Steinwedel, and Willard Sunderland. David McDonald, who served as one of the anonymous readers, significantly improved the conceptual architecture. I am grateful as well to Slavic Revieiu's other reader, who corrected several points. All remaining errors are my own.

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117. Rosenberg, William, Liberals in the Russian Revolution: The Constitutional Democratic Party, 1917-1921 (Princeton, 1974), 444 Google Scholar; Kenez, Peter, Civil WarinSouthRussia, 1919-1920: The Defeat of the Whites (Berkeley, 1977), 270-73Google Scholar; Treadgold, Donald W., “The Ideology of the White Movement: Wrangel's ‘Leftist Policy from Rightist Hands,'” in McLean, Hugh, Malia, Martin E., and Fischer, George, eds., Russian Thought and Politics (Cambridge, Mass., 1957), 489 Google Scholar. Treadgold sees Krivoshein as a reformer; Rosenberg and Kenez view him as a more conservative figure. I incline more toward Treadgold's view.

118. Rosenberg, , Liberals, 424 nil Google Scholar.

119. Kenez, , Civil War, 271, 279-87Google Scholar; Treadgold, “Ideology,” 490 Google Scholar.

120. Tatishchev, , Zemli i liudi, 349-51Google Scholar.

121. Decree cited in Kenez, Civil War, 281-82Google Scholar.

122. Tatishchev, Zemli i liudi, 272-76Google Scholar.

123. Heinzen, James W., Inventing a Soviet Countryside: State Power and the Transformation of Rural Russia, 1917-1929 (Pittsburgh, 2004), 32–33 Google Scholar; for the “subculture of expertise” found in the imperial Ministry of Agriculture before 1917, see 18, 41-46.

124. See the following files of the Soviet Commissariat of Agriculture's “Resettlement Administration,” containing correspondence from late 1916 through late 1918: RGAE, f. 478, op. 6, dd. 1331,1332,1335, 1363,1406Google Scholar.

125. E.g., Circular from the Resettlement Administration to district and regional Soviets of Asiatic Russia, 15 June 1918, RGAE, f. 478, op. 6, d. 1415,1. 123Google Scholar.

126. Minutes of 2 May 1918 session, RGAE, f. 478, op. 6, d. 1402,11. 79-84Google Scholar.

127. Ocherkipo istorii kolonizatsii severa (Peterburg [sic], 1922), 1:5 Google Scholar. The core principles of this program are found in Spravochnoe biuro po peveseleniiu v Sibir', “Doklad ob organizatsii kolonizatsionnykh rabot v severnykh guberniiakh Evropeiskoi Rossii” [January 1919], RGAE, f. 478, op. 6, d. 1402,11. 7-25Google Scholar.

128. “Doklad ob organizatsii,” RGAE, f. 478, op. 6, d. 1402,11. 7-9, 10-11.Google Scholar

129. Baron, Nick, Soviet Karelia: Politics, Planning and Terror in Stalin's Russia, 1920- 1939 (New York, 2007), 76–77 Google Scholar. Chirkin wrote extensively about how Soviet power could settle the north: Chirkin, G. F., Kolonizatsiia severa i puti soobshcheniia (Petrograd, 1919)Google Scholar; Chirkin, G. F., Puti razvitiia Marmana: Posle poezdhi na Murman glavnogo nachal'nika putei soobshcheniia I. N. Borisova (Petrograd, 1922)Google Scholar; Chirkin, G. F., “Istoriko-ekonomicheskie predposylki kolonizatsii severa,” in Ocherkipo istorii kolonizatsii severa, 1:7–26 Google Scholar; Chirkin, G. F., Priroda i liudi: Sovetskaia Kanada—Murmanskii krai (Leningrad, 1929)Google Scholar.

130. “Proektiruemye zheleznye dorogi i ikh kolonizatsionnoe znachenie,” VK, 1910, no. 6: 27–45 Google Scholar; “Kolonizatsionnoe i narodno-khoziaistvennoe znachenie proektiruemoi Iuzhno-sibirskoi magistrali,” VK, 1913, no. 13: 100–128 Google Scholar; “Znachenie dlia Rossii Mongol'- skogo rynka: K voprosu o sooruzhenii Mongol'skoi zheleznoi dorogi,” VK, 1915, no. 17: 77–84 Google Scholar.

131. Baron, , Soviet Karelia, 77–78 Google Scholar.

132. On Voshchinin's service before 1917, see Tatishchev, Zemli i liudi, 226, 232, 287.Google Scholar

133. In the imperial era, Voshchinin was the author of Pereselencheskii vopros v Gosudarstvennoi Dume IH-ogo sozyva (St. Petersburg, 1912)Google Scholar; Na sibirskom prostore: Kartiny pereseleniia (St. Petersburg, 1912)Google Scholar; Ocherki novogo Turkeslana: Svet i teni russkoi kolonizatsii (St. Petersburg, 1914)Google Scholar; and the following articles: “K zakonoproektu o prodazhe pereselencheskikh uchastkov,” VK, 1913, no. 13:176-82Google Scholar; “Sovremennye zadachi Rossii na severe Persii,” VK, 1915, no. 17: 26–51 Google Scholar; and a hagiographic article on colonization efforts during Krivoshein's tenure as minister: “Kolonizatsionnoe delo pri A. V. Krivosheine,” VK, 1916, no. 18: 1–24 Google Scholar.

134. Voshchinin, V. P., “Immediate reforms in the area of the resettlement,” RGAE, f. 478, op. 6, cl. 1404, 11. 2-3.Google Scholar For changing Soviet definitions of “colonization,” see also Hirsch, , State of Nations, 87–92 Google Scholar.

135. Minutes of meeting of delegates of representatives of the Resettlement Administration, 6June 1918, RGAE, f. 478, op. 6, d. 1415,1. 127 (emphasis in the original)Google Scholar. This idea is developed in Iamzin and Voshchinin's 1926 textbook, Uchenie o kolonizatsii i pereseleniiakh, pt. 1, chap. 1 and pt. 2, chap. 1Google Scholar.

136. Hirsch, , State of Nations, 87 Google Scholar.

137. Iamzin and Voshchinin, Uchenie o kolonizatsii ipereseleniiakh. Iamzin also authored a series of articles on the goals of Soviet colonization: Iamzin, I. L., “Sovetskaia Rossiia i otstalye narodnosti,” Zhizn’ natsional'nostei, no. 30 (128) (23 December 1921): 1 Google Scholar; Iamzin, I. L., “Kolonizatsiia v usloviiakh Sovetskoi Rossii,” Zhizn’ natsional'nostei, no. 2 (131) (17 January 1922): 1 Google Scholar; Iamzin, I. L., “Natsional'nye interesy i voprosy kolonizatsii,” Zhizn’ natsional'nostei, no. 16(151) (31 July 1922): 3 Google Scholar.

138. Hirsch, , State of Nations, 88ral00Google Scholar.

139. Iamzin, and Voshchinin, , Uchenie o kolonizatsii i pereseleniiakh, 5, 144 Google Scholar; for other favorable descriptions of the prerevolutionary Resettlement Administration's activities see also 68.

140. In 1933, Voshchinin would found and chair the Murmansk filial of the Geografoekonomicheskii nauchno-issledovatel'skii institut (GENII, Geographic-Economic Re search Institute) and edit the geographical dictionary of the Kola Peninsula that appeared in 1939. In 1948 he would receive a prize for his role in editing the Geograficheskii slovar’ Murmanskoi oblasti.Google Scholar

141. Rieber, , “Patronage and Professionalism,” 289-91Google Scholar.

142. For analogous arguments in the Russian case, see Yaney, Urge to Mobilize; Stanziani, L'économie en revolution; Engelstein, Laura, “Combined Underdevelopment: Discipline and the Law in Imperial and Soviet Russia,” American Historical Review 98, no. 2 (April 1993): 338-53CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Kojevnikov, , “Great War“; Alain Blum and Martine Mespoullet, “Le Passé au service du present: L'administration statistique de l'État soviétique entre 1918 et 1930,” Cahiers du monderusse 44, no. 2-3 (April-September 2003): 343-68, esp. 343-48Google Scholar; Kotsonis, Yanni, “'No Place to Go': Taxation and State Transformation in Late Imperial and Early Soviet Russia,” Journal of Modern History 76, no. 3 (September 2004): 531-77CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hirsch, State of Nations; Google Scholar and Cadiot, Juliette, Le Laboratoire impérial: Russie-URSS, 1860-1940 (Paris, 2007)Google Scholar.

143. Naumov, , Iz utselivshikh vospominanii, 2:380.Google Scholar

144. Kotsonis, Yanni, “'Face-to-Face': The State, the Individual, and the Citizen in Russian Taxation, 1863-1917,” Slavic Review 63, no. 2 (Summer 2004): 246 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

145. Tocqueville, Alexis de, The Old Regime and the French Revolution, trans. Gilbert, Stuart (1856; New York, 1983), 209 Google Scholar.