1. Polnoe sobranie sakonov rossiiskoi imperii, first series, 46 vols. (St. Petersburg, 1830-39), vol. 6, Table of Ranks, Jan. 24, 1722, no. 3, 890 (hereafter cited as PSZ). The table is printed on p. 284.

2. The chief administrative departments in Russia at this time were referred to as “colleges.” Placed above them as a supervisory and coordinating agency, the power of which varied considerably during the century, was the Governing Senate.

3. On the concept of structuring civil servants into two categories, see Demidova, N. F., “Biurokratizatsiia gosudarstvennogo apparata absoliutizma v XVII-XVIII vv.,” in Absoliutism v Rossii ﹛XVII-XVIII w.) (Moscow, 1964), pp. 222 and 228-29.Google Scholar

4. PSZ, vol. 6, Table of Ranks, art. 13; vol. 8, Nov. 13, 1731, nos. 5, 877-78.

5. PSZ, vol. 9, Aug. 2, 1736, no. 7, 021; vol. 23, Nov. 3, 1793, no. 17, 159; vol. 12, June 22, 1745, no. 9, 179.

6. Lopukhin, Ivan V., Zapiski moskovskago martinista senatora I. V. Lopukhina (Moscow, 1884), pp. 4–5 Google Scholar. Vigel, Filip F., Zapiski, 7 vols, in 3 (Moscow, 1891-93), 1 : 162.Google Scholar

7. Romanovich-Slavatinsky, Alexander V., Dvorianstvo v Rossii ot nachala XVIII veka do otmeny krepostnogo prava, 2nd ed. (Kiev, 1912), p. 227–28.Google Scholar PSZ, vol. 19, Apr. 13, 1771, no. 13, 596 and Feb. 15, 1772, no. 13, 760.

8. Shtrange, Mikhail M., Demokraticheskaia intelligentsiia Rossii v XVIII veke (Moscow, 1965), pp. 262–63 Google Scholar; PSZ, vol. 25, Nov. 17, 1798, no. 18, 755.

9. PSZ, vol. 16, Oct. 19, 1764, no. 12, 267; vol. 23, Dec. 16, 1790, no. 16, 930, and June 5, 1794, no. 17, 212.

10. PSZ, vol. 10, May 21, 1739, no. 7, 812. Tsentral'nyi gosudarstvennyi arkhiv drevnikh aktov, fond 248, General-prokuror senata, opis1 2, delo 6, 437, pp. 808-17 reverse.

11. PSZ, vol. 8, Feb. 26, 1728, no. 5, 245.

12. PSZ, vol. 16, Mar. 11, 1764, no. 12, 083, and Oct. 19, 1764, no. 12, 267

13. Table of Ranks, arts. 12 and 17.

14. PSZ, vol. 12, Sept. 28, 1744, no. 9, 041; vol. 16, Dec. IS, 1763, no. 11, 989.

15. The establishment in 1775 of new provincial agencies significantly increased the size of the civil administration. The territory administered became more extensive, new acquisitions under Catherine amounting to about 200, 000 square miles. This included heavily populated and well-developed, formerly Polish, regions over which administration was no simple task. On the causes of frequent promotions, see Nikolai F., Dubrovin, “Russkaia zhizn’ v nachale 19 v.,” Russkaia starina, 104, no. 11 (1900) : 264.Google Scholar

16. PSZ, vol. 8, Feb. 26, 1728, no. 5, 245. 17. The practice of automatic promotion is discussed by Tbrke, H. J., “Das russische Beamtentum in der ersten Halfte des 19. Jahrhunderts,” Forschungen sur osteiiropaischen Geschichte, 13 (Berlin, 1967) : 53–56.Google Scholar

18. PSZ, vol. 15, June 8, 1760, no. 11, 066; vol. 23, Dec. 16, 1790, no. 16, 930.

19. Tsentral'nyi gosudarstvennyi istoricheskii arkhiv v Leningrade, fond 1, 374, General-prokuror senata, opis’ 2, delo 1, 296, p. 82.

20. Evreinov, Grigorii A., Grazhdanskoe chino-proizvodstvo v Rossii : Istoricheskii ocherk (St. Petersburg, 1888), p. 53.Google Scholar

21. PSZ, vol. 16, Dec. 15, 1763, no. 11, 988; Demidova, “Biurokratizatsiia, ” p. 239

22. Vigel, Zapiski, 1 : 159.

23. PSZ, vol. 26, Aug. 3, 1800, no. 19, 503.

24. Arkhiv kniazia F. A. Kurakina, ed. Fedor A. Kurakin (Saratov, 1893-1902), 8 : 247.

25. The idea of rank becoming a substitute for obligatory service is well developed by Torke, “Das russische Beamtentum, ” pp. 28, 48-56.

26. PSZ, vol. 26, Aug. 3, 1800, no. 19, 503.

27. Dukes, Cf. Paul, Catherine the Great and the Russian Nobility : A Study Based on the Materials of the Legislative Commission of 1767 (Cambridge, Eng., 1967), p. 184 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Romanovich-Slavatinsky, Dvorianstvo, pp. 228-29; and Korf, Sergei A., Dvorianstvo i ego soslovnoe upravlenie sa stoletie 1762-1855 godov (St. Petersburg, 1906), p. 212.Google Scholar

28. PSZ, vol. 22, Charter to the Nobility, Apr. 21, 1785, no. 16, 187, art. 92.

29. PSZ, vol. 23, July 12, 1795, no. 17, 355.

30. PSZ, vol. 21, Apr. 18, 1782, no. 15, 381.

31. Cohen, Emmeline W., The Growth of the British Civil Service, 1780-1939 (London, 1941), p. 25–26.Google Scholar

32. Aleksandrov, Mikhail S., Gosudarstvo biurokratiia i absoliutizm v istorii Rossii, 3rd ed. (Moscow, 1925), p. 117.Google Scholar

33. PSZ, vol. 10, May 24, 1737, no. 7, 262.

34. Cited by Latkin, V. N., Uchebnik istorii russkago prava perioda imperii (XVIII i XIX st.), 2nd ed. (St. Petersburg, 1909), p. 355.Google Scholar

35. Quotation in Gribovsky, V. M., Vysshii sud i nadzor v Rossi% v pervuiu polovinu tsarstvovaniia Imperatritsy Ekateriny Vtoroi (St. Petersburg, 1901), p. 170.Google Scholar

36. PSZ, vol. 14, July 26, 1754, no. 10, 267. See also the requirement that judicial secretaries in Kiev had to have a command of Polish, PSZ, vol. 25, Sept. 17, 1798, no. 18, 670. 37. Romanovich-Slavatinsky, Dvorianstvo, pp. 227-28.

38. PSZ, vol. 25, Oct. 5, 1799, no. 19, 136, and Oct. 6, 1799, no. 19, 140; vol. 26, Apr. 12, 1800, no. 19, 376. Klochkov, Mikhail V., Ocherki pravitel'stvennoi deiatel'nosti vremeni Pavla I (Petrograd, 1916), p. 483.Google Scholar

39. See Marc, Raeff, “L'fitat, le gouvernement et la tradition politique en Russie imperiale,” Revue d'histoire modeme et contemporaine, 9 (Oct.-Dec. 1962) : 299.Google Scholar

40. PSZ, vol. 16, July 15, 1762, no. 11, 611.

41. PSZ, vol. 17, Sept. 5, 1765, no. 12, 465.

42. Romanovich-Slavatinsky, Dvorianstvo, p. 230. PSZ, vol. 23, Dec. 16, 1790, no. 16, 930.

43. Translation by Richard, Pipes, Karamzin's Memoir on Ancient and Modern Russia (Cambridge, Mass., 1959), p. 193.Google Scholar

44. PSZ, vol. 20, Jan. 28, 1778, no. 14, 701; vol. 22, Charter to the Towns, Apr. 21, 1785, no. 16, 188, art. 14.

45. Cf. Dukes, Catherine the Great, p. 174.

46. PSZ, vol. 30, Aug. 6, 1809, no. 23, 771.

47. See Marc, Raeff, Michael Speransky : Statesman of Imperial Russia, 1772-1839 (The Hague, 1957), p. 177–78.Google Scholar