Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-xbtfd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-18T06:20:34.634Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Sustaining Labor-Environmental Coalitions: Banana Allies in Costa Rica

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 January 2018

Henry J. Frundt
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

What is required for sustaining an alliance between union and environmental activists? Applying grounded theory to a case study in the Costa Rican banana sector, this article reveals five historical phases. First, unions and environmentalists identify common opportunity structures for joint action. Second, a preexisting network becomes a resource for mobilization. Third, the new coalition engages in communicative action that leads to shared identity and cultural framing and a foundation for handling exogenous global forces. Market policy changes in the fourth phase stimulate a transnational activist network and framing linkages. Dramatic supply disruptions in the fifth precipitate autonomous organizational approaches that require reframing, identity extension, and flexibility. This study argues that the Costa Rican case can be generalized to other labor-environmental coalitions if such alliances create simple, open structures that agilely adapt to external opportunity structures and expand frames that encourage collaborative autonomy and dualistic collective definitions.

Type
Research Article
Information
Latin American Politics and Society , Volume 52 , Issue 3 , Autumn 2010 , pp. 99 - 129
Copyright
Copyright © University of Miami 2010

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Acuerdo marco entre corporación de Desarrollo Benanero de Costa Rica S.A. BANDECO-Del Monte y El Sindicato de Trabajadores de Plantaciones Agricolas (SITRAP). 1998. Siquirres, February.Google Scholar
Alexander, Robert. 1999. Experience and Reflections on the Use of the NAALC. Memorias: encuentro trinacional de laboralistas democráticos. Mexico City : Universidad Nacional Autónoma.Google Scholar
Alfaro, R. 2004. Instituciones estatales en Costa Rica: un balance del período 1990–2003. Paper prepared for the Tenth Informe Estado de la Nación. San José.Google Scholar
Alvarez, Sonia, Dagnino, Evelina, and Escobar, Arturo, eds. 1998. Cultures of Politics, Politics of Cultures: Re-Visioning Latin American Social Movements. Boulder : Westview Press.Google Scholar
Arguedas Mora, Carlos. 1999a. Avances en los aspectos ambientales en las fincas bananeras. Colsiba no. 10: 4–5.Google Scholar
Arguedas Mora, Carlos. 1999b. Secretary-General, Sutap. Author interview. Siquirres, July 2.Google Scholar
Arguedas Mora, Carlos. 2000. Matanza de peces. February. http//members.tripod.com/foro_emaus.Google Scholar
Arguedas Mora, Carlos. 2002. Importante logro ambiental en Costa Rica. http//www.colsiba.org/salud.Google Scholar
Armbruster, Ralph. 2005. Globalization and Cross-Border Labor Solidarity in the Americas. New York : Routledge.Google Scholar
Astorga E., Yamileth. 1998. The Current Environmental Impact of the Banana Industry. Paper delivered at the International Banana Conference I, Brussels, May 4–6.Google Scholar
Asturias, Miguel Angel. 1976. Viento fuerte. Buenos Aires : Losada.Google Scholar
Backer, James. 1978. La iglesia y el sindicalismo en Costa Rica. San José : Editorial Costa Rica.Google Scholar
Bacon, David. 2004. The Children of NAFTA: Labor Wars on the U.S./Mexico Border. Berkeley : University of California Press.Google Scholar
Balzer, Deborah B. 1997. The Impact of Environmental Factors on Factionalism and Schism in Social Movement Organizations. Social Forces 76, 1: 199–228.Google Scholar
Barlow, Maude, and Clarke, Tony. 2001. Global Showdown: How the New Activists Are Fighting Global Corporate Rule. Toronto : Stoddart.Google Scholar
Barrantes Cascante, Ramón. 1999. The Aftermath of Dbcp. Foro Ii. http://members.tripod.com/foro_emaus/completeForo2000.htm:2–5.Google Scholar
Barrantes Cascante, Ramón, and Vargas Varela, Gerardo. 2000. Denuncia ante la opinión pública … July 17. http//members.tripod.com/foro_emaus.Google Scholar
Beck, Ulrich. 1992. The Risk Society. London : Sage.Google Scholar
Bell, Beverly. 2002. Social Movements and Regional Integration in the Americas. Albuquerque : Center for Economic Justice.Google Scholar
Bennett, W. Lance. 2002. Social Movements beyond Borders: Organization, Communication and Political Capacity in Two Eras of Transnational Activism. In Meyer et al. 2002. 203–26.Google Scholar
Bermúdez Umaña, Gilbert. 1999. Coordinator, Colsiba. Author interview. San José, August 5.Google Scholar
Bermúdez Umaña, Gilbert. 2004. Author interview. San José, July 5.Google Scholar
Booth, John. 1998. Costa Rica: Quest for Democracy. Boulder : Westview Press.Google Scholar
Booth, John A., Wade, Christine J., and Walker, Thomas W.. 2006. Understanding Central America. 4th ed. Boulder : Westview Press.Google Scholar
Brandy, Joe, and Smith, Jackie, eds. 2005. Coalitions Across Borders. Lanham : Rowman and Littlefield.Google Scholar
Buchanan, Millie, and Scoppettuolo, Gerry. 1997. Environment for Cooperation: Building Worker-Community Coalitions. In Work, Health, and Environment, ed. Levenstein, Charles and Wooding, John. New York : Guilford Press. 329–51.Google Scholar
Burbach, Robert, and Flynn, Patricia. 1980. Agribusiness in the Americas. New York : Monthly Review Press.Google Scholar
Center for Environmental Studies. 1996. Banana Production in Costa Rica. Reading Materials, 71–94. London : Leadership for Environment and Development International (Lead). http://www.lead.org/lead/training/international/costarica/96/Default.htm.Google Scholar
Chacón, León E. 1980. El sindicalismo en Costa Rica San José : Centro de Estudios Laborales.Google Scholar
Chiquita Brands International. 2000. Corporate Responsibility Report. Cincinnati : Chiquita Brands. http://www.chiquita.com.Google Scholar
Chomsky, Aviva, and Lauria-Santiago, Aldo, eds. 1998. Identity and Struggle at the Margins of the Nation-State. Durham : Duke University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Compa, Lance. 2001. Wary Allies. American Prospect 12, 2: 2–16.Google Scholar
Confederation of Costa Rican Banana Unions (COSIBA-CR). 1997. Cláusulas sociales y ambientales en la producción bananera. San José, April.Google Scholar
Confederation of Costa Rican Banana Unions (COSIBA-CR). 1999. Propuesta de la coordinadora de sindicatos bananeros de Costa Rica sobre la problemática de las libertades sindicales y la negociación colectiva en las plantaciones bananeras de Costa Rica. San José, May 25.Google Scholar
Confederation of Costa Rican Banana Unions (COSIBA-CR). 2000. Chiquita neiga derecho a negociación colectiva y desmejora condiciones laborales y salariales. See http//members.tripod.com/foro_emaus.Google Scholar
Conway, Janet M. 2004. Identity, Place, Knowledge: Social Movements Contesting Globalization. Nova Scotia : Fernwood Publishing.Google Scholar
Cooper, Peter, and Wallach, Lori. 1995. NAFTA's Broken Promises. Washington , DC : Public Citizen.Google Scholar
Coordinadora Latinoamericana de Sindicatos Bananeros (COLSIBA). 1998. Negociaciones con Chiquita. COLSIBA no. 7: 2–3. http://www.colsiba.org.Google Scholar
Coordinadora Latinoamericana de Sindicatos Bananeros (COLSIBA). 1999. Colsiba Propone firma de Acuerdo Regional de Carácter Laboral y Ambiental. COLSIBA no. 9: 2.Google Scholar
Corr, Anders. 1999. Battling the Banana Baron: Rural Hondurans Bloody Chiquita Brands International. In No Trespassing! Squatting, Rent Strikes, and Land Struggles Worldwide. Boston : South End Press. 39–50.Google Scholar
Della Porta, Donatella, and Tarrow, Sydney, eds. 2004. Transnational Protest and Global Activism. Lanham : Rowman and Littlefield.Google Scholar
Dole Behind the Smokescreen. 2006. Written and produced by various Ngos and unions. Pamphlet. Pdf available at http://www.usleap.org/files.Google Scholar
Dosal, Paul J. 1993. Doing Business with the Dictators: A Political History of United Fruit in Guatemala, 1899–1944. Wilmington : Scholarly Resources.Google Scholar
Dunkerley, James. 1988. Power in the Isthmus. London : Verso.Google Scholar
Edelman, Mark. 1999. Peasants Against Globalization. Stanford : Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Edwards, Bob, and Marullo, Sam 1995. Organizational Mortality in a Declining Social Movement: the Demise of Peace Movement Organizations in the End of the Cold War Era. American Sociological Review 60, 6: 908–27.Google Scholar
Esbenshade, Jill. 2004. Monitoring Sweatshops. Philadelphia : Temple University Press.Google Scholar
Escobar, Arturo, and Alvarez, Sonia 1992. The Making of Social Movements in Latin America. Boulder : Westview Press.Google Scholar
Fallas, Carlos. 1975. Mamita yunai. San José : Lehman.Google Scholar
Figueroa, Robert Melchior. 2001. Other Faces: Latinos and Environmental Justice. In Faces of Environmental Racism, ed. Westra, Laura and Lawson, Bill E.. Lanham : Rowan and Littlefield. 167–86.Google Scholar
Castillo, Flores, Alberto, Warren. 1998. La realidad de los derechos laborales de los trabajadores del sector bananero de Costa Rica. San José : COLSIBGACR/OIT.Google Scholar
Madrigal, Flores, José, Juan. 1993. El solidarismo desde adentro. 3rd ed. San José : ASEPROLA.Google Scholar
Emaús, Foro 1998a. Bananas for the World and the Negative Consequences for Costa Rica? San José : Foro Emaús.Google Scholar
Emaús, Foro 1998b. Entre la verguenza y la dignidad. La Voz del Manatí, special supplement. December.Google Scholar
Emaús, Foro 1998c. Normas mínimas socio-ambientales para la producción bananera en Costa Rica. San José : Foro Emaús. http//members.tripod.com/foro_emaus.Google Scholar
Emaús, Foro 1998d. Foro: The Secret Accounts of a Banana Enclave. San José : Foro Emaús.Google Scholar
Emaús, Foro 2003. 10 años de lucha. San José : Foro Emaús.Google Scholar
Foro Emaús and International Union of Foodworkers (IUF). 2001. El uso de plaguicidas y su relación con el desarrollo en Costa Rica. Pamphlet. San José, November.Google Scholar
Foster, John W. 2005. The Trinational Alliance against Nafta. In Brandy and Smith 2005. 209–30.Google Scholar
Foweraker, Joe. 1995. Theorizing Social Movements. London : Pluto Press.Google Scholar
Frank, Dana. 2005. Bananeras. Boston : South End Press.Google Scholar
Frundt, Henry J. 1998. Trade Conditions and Labor Rights: U.S. Initiatives, Dominican and Central American Responses. Gainesville : University Press of Florida.Google Scholar
Frundt, Henry J. 2009. Fair Bananas! Farmers, Workers, and Consumers Strive to Change an Industry. Tucson : University of Arizona Press.Google Scholar
Galeano, Eduardo. 1969. The Open Veins of Latin America. New York : Monthly Review Press.Google Scholar
Gerbarh, Jürgen, and Rucht, Dieter 1993. Mesomobilization: Organizing and Framing in Two Protest Campaigns in West Germany. American Journal of Sociology 98, 3: 555–95.Google Scholar
Gerlach, Luther. 1999. The Structure of Social Movements: Environmental Activism and Its Opponents. In Waves of Protest, ed. Freeman, Jo and Johnson, Victoria. Lanham : Rowan and Littlefield. 85–94.Google Scholar
Glazer, Barney G., and Strauss, Anselm A. 1967. The Discovery of Grounded Theory. Chicago : Aldine.Google Scholar
Goffman, Erving. 1997. Frame Analysis. In The Goffman Reader, ed. Lemert, Charles and Brananman, Ann. Oxford : Blackwell. 149–66.Google Scholar
Grossman, Lawrence S. 1998. The Political Ecology of Bananas: Contract Farming, Peasants, and Agrarian Change in the Eastern Caribbean. Chapel Hill : University of North Carolina Press.Google Scholar
Habermas, Jürgen. 1984. The Theory of Communicative Action. Vols 1 and 2. Boston : Beacon Press.Google Scholar
Habermas, Jürgen. 1989. The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere. Cambridge : MIT Press.Google Scholar
Hermosilla, Hernán. 1998. The History of the Foro Emaús: A Grass Roots and Ecumenical Struggle for the Defense of Life. In The Secret Accounts of a Banana Enclave, ed. Emaús, Foro. San José : Foro Emaús. 8–13.Google Scholar
Hermosilla, Hernán. 1999. Vice Director, Foro Emaús. Author interview. San José, August 5.Google Scholar
Hermosilla, Hernán. 2000. Trabajadores bananeros despedidos … por Finca Bananera Dos Rios, S.a. and related documents. April–July. http//members.tripod.com/foro_emaus.Google Scholar
Hernández, Carlos E., and Witter, Scott G.. 1996. Evaluating and Managing the Environmental Impact of Banana Production in Costa Rica: a Systems Approach. Ambio 25, 3: 171–78.Google Scholar
Hipsher, Patricia L. 1997. Democratic Transitions as Protest Cycles. In The Social Movement Society: Contentious Politics for a New Century, ed. Meyer, David and Tarrow, Sidney. Lanham : Rowman and Littlefield. 153–72.Google Scholar
Hirsch, J., and Aguilar, E.. 1996. Banana Expansion in the Humid Tropical Zones. In Reading Material, Training Session in Costa Rica, 95–108. London : LEAD.Google Scholar
Holl, Karen D., Daily, Gretchen C., and Ehrlich, Paul R.. 1995. Knowledge and Perceptions in Costa Rica regarding Environment, Population, and Biodiversity Issues. Conservation Biology 9, 6: 1548–55.Google Scholar
Holst, Eric. 1999. Manager, Community Agricultural Program, Rainforest Alliance. Author interview. New York, June 4.Google Scholar
Instituto Sindical de Cooperación de Desarrollo (ISCOD)/Agencia Española de Cooperación Internacional. 20034. Proyecto de apoyo de los sindicatos bananeros de Costa Rica. Propuestos de certificación ind. género; Códigos de conducto; Negociación colectiva y conflicto de carácter económico y social; Desarrollo y perspectivas de las organizaciones sociales de C.R. Papers prepared for workshops. San José : ISCOD.Google Scholar
Kamel, R., and Hoffman, A., eds. 1999. The Maquiladora Reader. Philadelphia : AFSC.Google Scholar
Kazis, Richard, and Grossman, Richard L.. 1982. Fear at Work. New York : Pilgrim Press.Google Scholar
Keck, Margaret, and Sikkink, Katherine 1998. Activists Beyond Borders. Ithaca : Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Kelly, C. 2001. Tangled Up in Red, White, and Blue. New York : Rowman and Littlefield.Google Scholar
Khagram, Sanjeer. 2002. Globalization, Global Alliances, and the Narmada Movement. In Restructuring World Politics, ed. Khagram, Kathryn Sikkink, and Riker, James V.. Minneapolis : University of Minnesota Press. 231–44.Google Scholar
Klandermans, Bert. 1990. Linking the Old and the New Movement Networks in the Netherlands. In Challenging the Political Order, ed. Dalton, Russell and Kuechler, Manfred. New York : Oxford University Press. 122–36.Google Scholar
Klein, Naomi. 2000. No Space, No Choice, No Jobs, No Logo. New York : Picador.Google Scholar
Koeppel, D. 2007. Banana: Fate of the Fruit that Changed the World. New York : Hudson.Google Scholar
Krut, Riva, and Gleckman, Harris 1998. ISO 14001: A Missed Opportunity for Sustainable Development. London : Earthscan Publications.Google Scholar
Langley, Lester D., and Schoonover, Thomas D.. 1995. The Banana Men: American Mercenaries and Entrepreneurs in Central America, 1880–1930. Lexington : University Press of Kentucky.Google Scholar
Lee, Charles. 1992. Beyond Toxic Wastes and Race. In Confronting Environmental Racism, ed. Bullard, Robert D. and Wright, Beverly. Boston : South End Press. 41–52.Google Scholar
López, T. 2005. La controversia comercial del banano: evolución del conflicto. Paper prepared for the 11th Informe Estado de la Nación. San José.Google Scholar
Louie, Miriam Ching Yoon. 2001. Sweatshop Warriors. Boston : South End Press.Google Scholar
Macdonald, Laura. 2005. Gendering Transnational Social Movement Analysis: Women's Groups Contest Free Trade in the Americas. In Brandy and Smith 2005. 21–42.Google Scholar
Marquardt, Steve. 2002. Pesticides, Parakeets, and Unions in the Costa Rican Banana Industry, 1938–1962. Latin American Research Review 37, 2: 3–33.Google Scholar
May, Roy. 1998. Transnational Companies and Governments against the People: the Struggle of Sara de Bataan. In Foro Emaús 1998d.Google Scholar
Mayer, Brian. 2009. Blue-Green Coalitions. Ithaca : ILR Press.Google Scholar
McAdam, Douglas. 1982. Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency. Chicago : University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
McAdam, Douglas, McCarthy, J., and Zald, M., eds. 1996. Introduction: Opportunities, Mobilizing Structures and Framing Processes—Toward a Synthetic, Comparative Perspective on Social Movements. In Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press. 1–20.Google Scholar
McCarthy, J., and Zald, M.. 1973. The Trend of Social Movements in America. Morristown : General Learning Press.Google Scholar
Melucci, Alberto. 1989. Nomads of the Present. Philadelphia : Temple University Press.Google Scholar
Melucci, Alberto. 1996. Challenging Codes. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meyer, David S., Whittier, Nancy, and Robnett, Belinda, eds. 2002. Social Movements: Identity, Culture and the State. New York : Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
De Salud, Ministerio. 1998. Diagnóstico de aspectos ocupacionales y ambientales de la actividad bananera de la zona atlántica de Costa Rica, 1997.Google Scholar
Mortensen, S., Johnson, K., Weisskopf, C., Hooper, M., Lacher, T., and Kendall, R.. 1998. Avian Exposure to Pesticides in Costa Rican Banana Plantations. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 60: 562–68.Google Scholar
Murray, Douglas. 1994. Cultivating Crisis: The Human Cost of Pesticides in Latin America. Austin : University of Texas Press.Google Scholar
Myers, Gordon. 2004. Banana Wars, the Price of Free Trade: A Caribbean Perspective. London : Zed Books.Google Scholar
Narayan, Deepa. 1999. Bonds and Bridges: Social Capital and Poverty. Poverty Research Working Paper no. 2167. Washington , DC : World Bank.Google Scholar
Neuman, W. Lawrence. 2007. Basics of Social Research. 2nd ed. Boston : Allyn and Bacon.Google Scholar
Obispo y Presbíteros de Vicariato Apostólico de Limón. 1989. La expansión bananera incontrolada. Pastoral letter. December 25.Google Scholar
O'Connor, Martin, ed. 1994. Is Capitalism Sustainable? New York : Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Offe, Claus. 1985. New Social Movements: Challenging the Boundaries of Institutional Politics. Social Research 52, 4 (Winter): 817–68.Google Scholar
Palencia, Tania. 1997. Creación de una instancia coordinadora para detener el impacto de la expansión bananera incontrolada. San José : Fundación Arias.Google Scholar
Perfecto, Ivette. 1992. Farmworkers, Pesticides, and International Connections. In Race and the Incidence of Environmental Hazards, ed. Bryant, Bunyan and Mohai, Paul. Boulder : Westview Press.Google Scholar
Perillo, Robert. 2000. The Current Crisis in the Latin American Banana Industry. In A Strategic Analysis of the Central American Banana Industry: An Industry in Crisis, ed. Perillo, and Trejos, María E.. Chicago : USLEAP/COLSIBA/AFL-CIO/ACILS. 11–20.Google Scholar
Quezada, Víctor. 2004. Sociologist, Labor Consultant. Author interview. San José, June 30.Google Scholar
Ramírez, Hugo. 1999. Official, Chiquita Brands. Author interview. Sarapiquí, August 13.Google Scholar
Raynolds, Laura. 2003. The Global Banana Trade. In Striffler and Moberg 2003. 23–47.Google Scholar
Raynolds, Laura, and Murray, D.. 1998. Yes, We Have No Bananas: Re-Regulating Global and Regional Trade. International Journal of Sociology of Agriculture and Food 7: 7–44.Google Scholar
Real, Michael. 1996. Exploring Media Culture. Thousand Oaks : Sage.Google Scholar
Rojas Valverde, A. 2003. 10 años de lucha del Foro Emaús. In Foro Emaús 2003. 35–45.Google Scholar
Roldan, Carmen. 1999. Official, Rainforest Alliance. Author interview. San José, August 14.Google Scholar
Rose, Fred. 2000. Coalitions Across the Class Divide. Ithaca : Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Rupp, Leila, and Taylor, Verta A.. 1987. Survival in the Doldrums: The American Women's Rights Movement, 1945 to the 1960s. New York : Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Salazar, J. M. 1981. Política y reforma en Costa Rica, 1914–1958. San José : Porvenir.Google Scholar
Sass, Robert. 2000. Agricultural Killing Fields: the Poisoning of Costa Rican Banana Workers. International Journal of Health Services 30, 3: 491–514.Google Scholar
Sawchuk, Dana. 2004. The Costa Rican Catholic Church, Social Justice, and the Rights of Workers. Waterloo : Wilfred Laurier University Press/Canadian Corporation for Studies in Religion.Google Scholar
Seidman, Gay. 2005. Monitoring Multinationals: Corporate Codes of Conduct. In Brandy and Smith 2005. 163–85.Google Scholar
Sikkink, Katherine. 2004. Mixed Messages: U.S. Human Rights Policy and Latin America. Ithaca : Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Simmons, James R., and Simmons, Solon S.. 2002. Growing Green: Can It Happen Here? In Teamsters and Turtles? U. S. Progressive Political Movements in the 21st Century, ed. Berg, John C.. Lanham : Rowman and Littlefield. 187–210.Google Scholar
Smith, J., and Johnston, H., eds. 2002. Globalization and Resistance. Lanham : Rowman and Littlefield.Google Scholar
Snow, David E., and Benford, Robert 1988. Ideology, Frame Resonance, and Participant Mobilization. International Social Movement Research 1: 197–217.Google Scholar
Snow, David E., and Benford, Robert 1992. Master Frames and Cycles of Protest. In Frontiers in Social Movement Theory, ed. Morris, A. and Mueller, C. M.. New Haven : Yale University Press. 133–55.Google Scholar
Snow, David E., and McAdam, Douglas 2000. Identity Work Processes in the Context of Social Movements: Clarifying the Identity/Movemnent Nexus. In Self Identity and Social Movements, ed. Stryker, Sheldon, Owens, Timothy J., and White, Robert W.. Minneapolis : University of Minnesota Press. 41–67.Google Scholar
Sojo, Carlos. 1991. La utopia del estado mínimo: inflluencia de AID en Costa Rica en los años ochenta. Managua : CRIES.Google Scholar
Soluri, John. 2005. Banana Cultures. Austin : University of Texas Press.Google Scholar
Staggenborg, Suzanne. 1989. Stability and Innovation in the Women's Movement: a Comparison of Two Movement Organizations. Social Problems 36, 1: 75–92.Google Scholar
Striffler, Steve, and Moberg, Mark, eds. 2003. Banana Wars: Power, Production, and History in the Americas. Durham : Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Tarrow, Sydney. 1989. Democracy and Disorder. Oxford : Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Tarrow, Sydney. 1998. Power in Movements. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Taylor, J. G., and Scharlin, P. J.. 2004. Smart Alliance. New Haven : Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Thiele, Stefen. 2000. La anunciada crisis bananera y sus impactos en Costa Rica. San José : Foro Emaús.Google Scholar
Thompson, E. P. 1963. The Making of the English Working Class. Berkeley : University of California Press.Google Scholar
Tilly, Charles. 1978. From Mobilization to Revelation. Reading : Addison Wesley.Google Scholar
Touraine, Alan. 1981. The Voice and the Eye: The Analysis of Social Movements. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Trejos, María Eugenia. 1996. La parcialidad de la calidad total: el caso de las bananeras en Honduras. San José : ASEPROLA.Google Scholar
Trejos, María Eugenia. 2004. Author interview. San José, June 28.Google Scholar
Umaña, Luis. 1990. Director, National Chamber of Banana Growers. Quoted in La República (San José), September 1.Google Scholar
U.S. Labor Education in the Americas Project (USLEAP). 1999. Oldest Union in Guatemala under Attack by Del Monte. Nos. 3, 4.Google Scholar
U.S. Labor Education in the Americas Project (USLEAP). 2001. Chiquita Signs Historic Worker Rights Agreement with Unions and the IUF. 2: 1, 6–7.Google Scholar
U.S. Labor Education in the Americas Project (USLEAP). 2002. Ecuador Banana Workers Strike in Critical Fight Against Race to the Bottom. 1: 1–2.Google Scholar
Valenciano, Enrique. 1999. Official, Limón Social Pastorate, Foro Emaús. Author interview. Siquirres, August 10.Google Scholar
Van de Kastelle, Adelien. 1998. The Banana Chain: the Macro-Economics of the Banana Trade. Paper delivered at International Banana Conference I, Brussels, May 4–6.Google Scholar
Van Dyke, Nella. 2003. Crossing Movement Boundaries: Factors that Facilitate Coalition Protest by American College Students, 1930–1990. Social Problems 50, 2: 226–50.Google Scholar
Vargas, Gerardo. 1998. The Socio-Environmental Problems of Banana Plantations in Costa Rica. In Foro Emaús 1998d. 4–7.Google Scholar
Vargas, J. R. 1995. Dimensión humana de los desequilibrios macroeconómicos: nación, economía y sociedad civil. Paper prepared for the project Estado de la Nación. Discussion paper no. 4. San José.Google Scholar
Wedin, Ake. 1986. International Union Solidarity and Its Victims: The Costa Rican Case. Research paper no. 43. Stockholm : Institute of Latin American Studies.Google Scholar
Wellman, Barry, ed. 1999. The Network Community: An Introduction. In Networks in the Global Village, ed. Wellman, . Boulder : Westview Press. 1–48.Google Scholar
Wesseling, Catharina, Ahlbom, Anders, Antich, D., Rodríguez, A. C., and Castro, R.. 1996. Cancer in Banana Plantation Workers in Costa Rica. International Journal of Epidemiology 25: 1125–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wheat, Andrew. 1996. Toxic Bananas. Multinational Monitor (September): 9–15.Google Scholar
Wille, Christopher. 1999. Regional Director, Rainforest Alliance. Author interview. Heredia, August 6.Google Scholar
Wood, Lesley. 2005. Bridging the Chasms: the Case of People's Global Action. In Brandy and Smith 2005. 95–119.Google Scholar
Workers of Sarapiquí. 1999. Author interviews. Various dates.Google Scholar
Workers of Sarapiquí. 2004. Author interviews. Various dates.Google Scholar
Workers of Siquirres. 1999. Author interviews. Various dates.Google Scholar
Workers of Sixaola. 2004. Author interviews. Various dates.Google Scholar
Wunderlich, Christopher. 1999. Official, Rainforest Alliance. Author interview. Antigua, Guatemala, August 25.Google Scholar
Zepeda, German. 2006. Director, Colsiba. Author interview. San Juan, Puerto Rico, March 17.Google Scholar