Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-fscjk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-21T14:42:01.225Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Mediators and Moderators of the Association Between Perceived Stress and Episodic Memory in Diverse Older Adults

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 December 2020

Afsara B. Zaheed Open the ORCID record for Afsara B. Zaheed [Opens in a new window] ,
Neika Sharifian Open the ORCID record for Neika Sharifian [Opens in a new window] ,
A. Zarina Kraal ,
Ketlyne Sol ,
Jennifer J. Manly Open the ORCID record for Jennifer J. Manly [Opens in a new window] ,
Nicole Schupf ,
Adam M. Brickman Open the ORCID record for Adam M. Brickman [Opens in a new window]  and
Laura B. Zahodne Open the ORCID record for Laura B. Zahodne [Opens in a new window]
Afsara B. Zaheed*
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, 530 Church St., Ann Arbor, MI48109, USA
Neika Sharifian
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, 530 Church St., Ann Arbor, MI48109, USA
A. Zarina Kraal
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, 530 Church St., Ann Arbor, MI48109, USA
Ketlyne Sol
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, 530 Church St., Ann Arbor, MI48109, USA
Jennifer J. Manly
Affiliation:
Taub Institute for Research on Alzheimer’s Disease and the Aging Brain, Columbia University Medical Center, 710 West 168th Street, 3rd floor, New York, NY10032, USA
Nicole Schupf
Affiliation:
Taub Institute for Research on Alzheimer’s Disease and the Aging Brain, Columbia University Medical Center, 710 West 168th Street, 3rd floor, New York, NY10032, USA
Adam M. Brickman
Affiliation:
Taub Institute for Research on Alzheimer’s Disease and the Aging Brain, Columbia University Medical Center, 710 West 168th Street, 3rd floor, New York, NY10032, USA
Laura B. Zahodne
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, 530 Church St., Ann Arbor, MI48109, USA
*
*Correspondence and reprint requests to: Afsara B. Zaheed, Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, 530 Church St., Ann Arbor, MI48109, USA. E-mail: afsaraz@umich.edu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Objective:

Stress is a risk factor for numerous negative health outcomes, including cognitive impairment in late-life. The negative association between stress and cognition may be mediated by depressive symptoms, which separate studies have identified as both a consequence of perceived stress and a risk factor for cognitive decline. Pathways linking perceived stress, depressive symptoms, and cognition may be moderated by sociodemographics and psychosocial resources. The goal of this cross-sectional study was to identify modifying factors and enhance understanding of the mechanisms underlying the stress–cognition association in a racially and ethnically diverse sample of older adults.

Method:

A linear regression estimated the association between perceived stress and episodic memory in 578 older adults (Mage = 74.58) in the Washington Heights-Inwood Columbia Aging Project. Subsequent models tested whether depressive symptoms mediated the stress–memory relationship and whether sociodemographics (gender, race, and ethnicity) or perceived control moderated these pathways.

Results:

Independent of sociodemographics and chronic diseases, greater perceived stress was associated with worse episodic memory. This relationship was mediated by more depressive symptoms. Higher perceived control buffered the association between stress and depressive symptoms. There was no significant moderation by gender, race, or ethnicity.

Conclusion:

Depressive symptoms may play a role in the negative association between perceived stress and cognition among older adults; however, longitudinal analyses and studies using experimental designs are needed. Perceived control is a modifiable psychological resource that may offset the negative impact of stress.

Keywords

Depressive symptomsPsychological stressCognitive agingSense of control
Type
Regular Research
Information
Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society , Volume 27 , Issue 9 , October 2021 , pp. 883 - 895
Copyright
Copyright © INS. Published by Cambridge University Press, 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aggarwal, N.T., Wilson, R.S., Beck, T.L., Rajan, K.B., Mendes de Leon, C.F., Evans, D.A., & Everson-Rose, S.A. (2014). Perceived stress and change in cognitive function among adults 65 years and older. Psychosomatic Medicine, 76(1), 80–85. https://doi.org/10.1097/PSY.0000000000000016 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alzheimer’s Disease Facts and Figures. (2019). Alzheimer’s & Dementia (pp. 321–387). Retrieved from https://www.alz.org/media/Documents/alzheimers-facts-and-figures-2019-r.pdf Google Scholar
Bäckman, L., Small, B.J., & Fratiglioni, L. (2001). Stability of the preclinical episodic memory deficit in Alzheimer’s disease. Brain: A Journal of Neurology, 124(Pt 1), 96–102. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11133790 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barbosa-Leiker, C., Kostick, M., Lei, M., McPherson, S., Roper, V., Hoekstra, T., & Wright, B. (2013). Measurement invariance of the perceived stress scale and latent mean differences across gender and time. Stress and Health, 29(3), 253–260. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2463 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bollini, A.M., Walker, E.F., Hamann, S., & Kestler, L. (2004). The influence of perceived control and locus of control on the cortisol and subjective responses to stress. Biological Psychology, 67(3), 245–260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2003.11.002 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boraxbekk, C.-J., Lundquist, A., Nordin, A., Nyberg, L., Nilsson, L.-G., & Adolfsson, R. (2015). Free recall episodic memory performance predicts dementia ten years prior to clinical diagnosis: Findings from the Betula longitudinal study. Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders Extra, 5(2), 191–202 https://doi.org/10.1159/000381535. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brand, A.N., Jolles, J., & Gispen-de Wied, C. (1992). Recall and recognition memory deficits in depression. Journal of Affective Disorders, 25(1), 77–86. –https://doi.org/10.1016/0165–0327(92)90095-N CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buschke, H. & Fuld, P.A. (1974). Evaluating storage, retention, and retrieval in disordered memory and learning. Neurology, 24(11), 1019–1025. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.24.11.1019 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caraci, F., Copani, A., & Nicoletti, F. (2010). Depression and Alzheimer’s disease: Neurobiological links and common pharmacological targets. European Journal of Pharmacology, 626(1), 64–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EJPHAR.2009.10.022 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carter, C.L., Resnick, E.M., Mallampalli, M., & Kalbarczyk, A. (2012). Sex and gender differences in Alzheimer’s disease: Recommendations for future research. Journal of Women’s Health, 21(10), 1018–1023. https://doi.org/10.1089/jwh.2012.3789 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cerqueira, J.J., Mailliet, F., Almeida, O.F.X., Jay, T.M., & Sousa, N. (2007). The prefrontal cortex as a key target of the maladaptive response to stress. The Journal of Neuroscience: The Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience, 27(11), 2781–2787. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4372–06.2007 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cherbuin, N., Kim, S., & Anstey, K.J. (2015). Dementia risk estimates associated with measures of depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2015 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chipperfield, J.G., Campbell, D.W., & Perry, R.P. (2004). Stability in perceived control. Journal of Aging and Health, 16(1), 116–147. https://doi.org/10.1177/0898264303260447 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohen, S., Kessler, R.C., & Gordon, L.U. (Eds.). (1997). Measuring Stress: A Guide for Health and Social Scientists. Oxford University Press on Demand. Retrieved from https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=o8znCwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PR9&ots=aJCh682ubo&sig=k1T2c2MOpE_2EpHhAyxjrpmfbdM#v=onepage&q&f=false Google Scholar
Cohen, S., Janicki-Deverts, D., & Miller, G.E. (2007). Psychological stress and disease. JAMA, 298(14), 1685. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.298.14.1685 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohen, S., Kamarck, T., & Mermelstein, R. (1983). A global measure of perceived stress. Source Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24(4), 385–396. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2136404 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Creswell, J.D., Welch, W.T., Taylor, S.E., Sherman, D.K., Gruenewald, T.L., & Mann, T. (2005). Affirmation of personal values buffers neuroendocrine and psychological stress responses. Psychological Science, 16(11), 846–851. –https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467–9280.2005.01624.x CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cummins, R.C. (1988). Perceptions of social support, receipt of supportive behaviors, and locus of control as moderators of the effects of chronic stress. American Journal of Community Psychology, 16(5), 685–700. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00930021 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dedovic, K., Duchesne, A., Andrews, J., Engert, V., & Pruessner, J.C. (2009). The brain and the stress axis: The neural correlates of cortisol regulation in response to stress. NeuroImage, 47(3), 864–871. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.NEUROIMAGE.2009.05.074 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Díaz-Venegas, C., Downer, B., Langa, K.M., & Wong, R. (2016). Racial and ethnic differences in cognitive function among older adults in the USA. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 31(9), 1004–1012. https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.4410 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dickinson, W.J., Potter, G.G., Hybels, C.F., McQuoid, D.R., & Steffens, D.C. (2011). Change in stress and social support as predictors of cognitive decline in older adults with and without depression. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 26(12), 1267–1274. https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.2676 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Diehl, M. & Hay, E.L. (2010). Risk and resilience factors in coping with daily stress in adulthood: The role of age, self-concept incoherence, and personal control. Developmental Psychology, 46(5), 1132–1146. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019937 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dotson, V.M., Resnick, S.M., & Zonderman, A.B. (2008). Differential association of concurrent, baseline, and average depressive symptoms with cognitive decline in older adults. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 16(4), 318–330. https://doi.org/10.1097/JGP.0B013E3181662A9C CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eichenbaum, H., Yonelinas, A.P., & Ranganath, C. (2007). The medial temporal lobe and recognition memory. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 30(1), 123–152. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.neuro.30.051606.094328 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Elliot, A.J., Mooney, C.J., Infurna, F.J., & Chapman, B.P. (2017). Associations of lifetime trauma and chronic stress with c-reactive protein in adults ages 50 years and older. Psychosomatic Medicine, 79(6), 622–630. https://doi.org/10.1097/PSY.0000000000000476 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Epel, E.S., Lin, J., Wilhelm, F.H., Wolkowitz, O.M., Cawthon, R., Adler, N.E., … Blackburn, E.H. (2006). Cell aging in relation to stress arousal and cardiovascular disease risk factors. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 31(3), 277–287. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.PSYNEUEN.2005.08.011 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ezzati, A., Jiang, J., Katz, M.J., Sliwinski, M.J., Zimmerman, M.E., & Lipton, R.B. (2014). Validation of the Perceived Stress Scale in a community sample of older adults. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 29(6), 645–652. https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.4049 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fiske, A., Wetherell, J.L., & Gatz, M. (2009). Depression in older adults. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 5(1), 363–389. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.032408.153621 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Garson, G.D. (2012). Testing Statistical Assumptions. Asheboro, NC. Retrieved from www.statisticalassociates.com Google Scholar
George, L.K. & Lynch, S.M. (2003). Race differences in depressive symptoms: A dynamic perspective on stress exposure and vulnerability. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 44(3), 353. https://doi.org/10.2307/1519784 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gerstorf, D., Heckhausen, J., Ram, N., Infurna, F.J., Schupp, J., & Wagner, G.G. (2014). Perceived personal control buffers terminal decline in well-being. Psychology and Aging, 29(3), 612–625. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037227 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Golding, J.M. & Burnam, M.A. (1990). Stress and social support as predictors of depressive symptoms in Mexican Americans and non-Hispanic Whites. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 9(2), 268–287. http://dx.doi.org/10.1521/jscp.1990.9.2.268 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
González, P., Nuñez, A., Merz, E., Brintz, C., Weitzman, O., Navas, E.L., … Gallo, L.C. (2017). Measurement properties of the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D 10): Findings from HCHS/SOL. Psychological Assessment, 29(4), 372–381. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000330 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gouin, J.-P., Hantsoo, L., & Kiecolt-Glaser, J.K. (2008). Immune dysregulation and chronic stress among older adults: A review. Neuroimmunomodulation, 15(4–6), 251–259. https://doi.org/10.1159/000156468 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gourounti, K., Anagnostopoulos, F., Potamianos, G., Lykeridou, K., Schmidt, L., & Vaslamatzis, G. (2012). Perception of control, coping and psychological stress of infertile women undergoing IVF. Reproductive BioMedicine Online, 24(6), 670–679. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RBMO.2012.03.002 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Graham, J.E., Christian, L.M., & Kiecolt-Glaser, J.K. (2006). Stress, age, and immune function: Toward a lifespan approach. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 29(4), 389–400. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865–006–9057–4 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grote, N.K., Bledsoe, S.E., Larkin, J., Lemay, E.P., & Brown, C. (2007). Stress exposure and depression in disadvantaged women: The protective effects of optimism and perceived control. Social Work Research, 31(1), 19–33. https://doi.org/10.1093/swr/31.1.19 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hammen, C., Kim, E.Y., Eberhart, N.K., & Brennan, P.A. (2009). Chronic and acute stress and the prediction of major depression in women. Depression and Anxiety, 26(8), 718–723. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.20571 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hayes, A.F. (2017). Introduction to Mediation, Moderation, and Conditional Process Analysis: A Regression-Based Approach (2nd ed.). Gilford Publications.Google Scholar
Infurna, F.J. & Gerstorf, D. (2013). Linking perceived control, physical activity, and biological health to memory change. Psychology and Aging. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033327 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Irwin, M., Artin, K.H., & Oxman, M.N. (1999). Screening for depression in the older adult: Criterion validity of the 10-item Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D). Archives of Internal Medicine, 159(15), 1701. https://doi.org/10.1001/archinte.159.15.1701 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jiang, J., Katz, M.J., White, R., Zimmerman, M.E., Sliwinski, M., Kim, M., & Lipton, R.B. (2014). Perceived stress and risk of dementia in older adults with amnestic mild cognitive impairment. Alzheimer’s & Dementia, 10(4), P594. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jalz.2014.05.993 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, J.H. & Sarason, I.G. (1978). Life stress, depression and anxiety: Internal- external control as a moderator variable. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 22(3), 205–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022–3999(78)90025–9 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Juster, R.-P., McEwen, B.S., & Lupien, S.J. (2010). Allostatic load biomarkers of chronic stress and impact on health and cognition. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 35(1), 2–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.NEUBIOREV.2009.10.002 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Justice, N.J. (2018). The relationship between stress and Alzheimer’s disease. Neurobiology of Stress, 8, 127–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.YNSTR.2018.04.002 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kessler, R.C. (2003). Epidemiology of women and depression. Journal of Affective Disorders, 74(1), 5–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165–0327(02)00426–3 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kornstein, S.G. (2002). Chronic Depression in Women. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 63(7), 602–609. https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.v63n0713 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Korten, N.C.M., Comijs, H.C., Penninx, B.W.J.H., & Deeg, D.J.H. (2017). Perceived stress and cognitive function in older adults: Which aspect of perceived stress is important? International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 32(4), 439–445. https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.4486 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Koster, A., Bosma, H., Kempen, G.I.J.M., Penninx, B.W.J.H., Beekman, A.T.F., Deeg, D.J.H., & van Eijk, J.T.M. (2006). Socioeconomic differences in incident depression in older adults: The role of psychosocial factors, physical health status, and behavioral factors. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 61(5), 619–627. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2006.05.009 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krause, N. (1986). Stress and sex differences in depressive symptoms among older adults. Journal of Gerontology, 41(6), 727–731. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronj/41.6.727 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kupst, M.J., Butt, Z., Stoney, C.M., Griffith, J.W., Salsman, J.M., Folkman, S., & Cella, D. (2015). Assessment of stress and self-efficacy for the NIH Toolbox for Neurological and Behavioral Function. Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 28(5), 531–544. https://doi.org/10.1080/10615806.2014.994204 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kwag, K.H., Martin, P., Russell, D., Franke, W., & Kohut, M. (2011). The impact of perceived stress, social support, and home-based physical activity on mental health among older adults. International Journal of Aging & Human Development, 72(2), 137–154. https://doi.org/10.2190/AG.72.2.c CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lachman, M.E. & Andreoletti, C. (2006). Strategy use mediates the relationship between control beliefs and memory performance for middle-aged and older adults. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 61(2), P88–P94. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/61.2.P88 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lachman, M.E. (2006). Perceived control over aging-related declines: Adaptive beliefs and behaviors. Current Directions in Psychological Science. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467–8721.2006.00453.x CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lachman, M.E. & Weaver, S.L. (1998). The sense of control as a moderator of social class differences in health and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022–3514.74.3.763 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lachman, M.E., Neupert, S.D., & Agrigoroaei, S. (2011). Chapter 11 - The relevance of control beliefs for health and aging. In Handbook of the Psychology of Aging (7th ed.). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978–0–12–380882–0.00011–5 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lupien, S.J., McEwen, B.S., Gunnar, M.R., & Heim, C. (2009). Effects of stress throughout the lifespan on the brain, behaviour and cognition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 10(6), 434–445. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn2639 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Machado, A., Herrera, A.J., De Pablos, R.M., Espinosa-Oliva, A.M., Sarmiento, M., Ayala, A., … Cano, J. (2014). Chronic stress as a risk factor for Alzheimer’s disease. Reviews in the Neurosciences. –https://doi.org/10.1515/revneuro-2014–0035 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Manly, J.J., Bell-McGinty, S., Tang, M.-X., Schupf, N., Stern, Y., & Mayeux, R. (2005). Implementing diagnostic criteria and estimating frequency of mild cognitive impairment in an urban community. Archives of Neurology, 62(11), 1739. https://doi.org/10.1001/archneur.62.11.1739 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marden, J.R., Tchetgen Tchetgen, E.J., Kawachi, I., & Glymour, M.M. (2017). Contribution of socioeconomic status at 3 life-course periods to late-life memory function and decline: Early and late predictors of dementia risk. American Journal of Epidemiology, 186, 805–814. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwx155 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Masur, D.M., Fuld, P.A., Blau, A.D., Thal, L.J., Levin, H.S., & Aronson, M.K. (1989). Distinguishing normal and demented elderly with the selective reminding test. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 11(5), 615–630. https://doi.org/10.1080/01688638908400920 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Matud, M.P. (2004). Gender differences in stress and coping styles. Personality and Individual Differences, 37(7), 1401–1415. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.PAID.2004.01.010 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mayeda, E.R., Glymour, M.M., Quesenberry, C.P., & Whitmer, R.A. (2016). Inequalities in dementia incidence between six racial and ethnic groups over 14 years. Alzheimer’s and Dementia. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jalz.2015.12.007 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mcewen, B.S. & Robinson, G.E. (2012). Brain on stress: How the social environment gets under the skin. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 109(4), 17180–17185. Retrieved from www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1221399110 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McEwen, B.S. & Sapolsky, R.M. (1995). Stress and cognitive function. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 5(2), 205–216. https://doi.org/10.1016/0959–4388(95)80028-X CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meyer, I.H., Schwartz, S., & Frost, D.M. (2008). Social patterning of stress and coping: Does disadvantaged social statuses confer more stress and fewer coping resources? Social Science and Medicine, 67(3), 368–379. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2008.03.012 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Munoz, E., Sliwinski, M.J., Scott, S.B., & Hofer, S. (2015). Global perceived stress predicts cognitive change among older adults. Psychology and Aging, 30(3), 487–499. https://doi.org/10.1037/pag0000036 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O’Shea, D.M., Fieo, R.A., Hamilton, J.L., Zahodne, L.B., Manly, J.J., & Stern, Y. (2015). Examining the association between late-life depressive symptoms, cognitive function, and brain volumes in the context of cognitive reserve. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 30(6), 614–622. https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.4192 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ohman, L., Nordin, S., Bergdahl, J., Slunga Birgander, L., & Stigsdotter Neely, A. (2007). Cognitive function in outpatients with perceived chronic stress. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health, 33(3), 223–232. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17572832 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Peavy, G.M., Salmon, D.P., Jacobson, M.W., Hervey, A., Gamst, A.C., Wolfson, T., … Galasko, D. (2009). Effects of chronic stress on memory decline in cognitively normal and mildly impaired older adults. American Journal of Psychiatry, 166(12), 1384–1391. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.09040461 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Perera, M.J., Brintz, C.E., Birnbaum-Weitzman, O., Penedo, F.J., Gallo, L.C., Gonzalez, P., … Llabre, M.M. (2017). Factor structure of the perceived stress scale-10 (PSS) across English and Spanish language responders in the HCHS/SOL sociocultural ancillary study. Psychological Assessment, 29(3), 320–328. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000336 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Podcasy, J.L. & Epperson, C.N. (2016). Considering sex and gender in Alzheimer disease and other dementias. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 18(4), 437–446. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28179815 Google ScholarPubMed
Reynolds, C.F., Cuijpers, P., Patel, V., Cohen, A., Dias, A., Chowdhary, N., … Albert, S.M. (2012). Early intervention to reduce the global health and economic burden of major depression in older adults. Annual Review of Public Health, 33(1), 123–135. –https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031811–124544 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Richard, E., Reitz, C., Honig, L.H., Schupf, N., Tang, M.X., Manly, J.J., … Luchsinger, J.A. (2013). Late-life depression, mild cognitive impairment, and dementia. JAMA Neurology, 70(3), 383. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaneurol.2013.603 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rickenbach, E.H., Almeida, D.M., Seeman, T.E., & Lachman, M.E. (2014). Daily stress magnifies the association between cognitive decline and everyday memory problems: An integration of longitudinal and diary methods. Psychology and Aging, 29(4), 852–862. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038072 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Salgado de Snyder, V.N., Cervantes, R.C., & Padilla, A.M. (1990). Gender and ethnic differences in psychosocial stress and generalized distress among Hispanics. Sex Roles, 22(7–8), 441–453. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00288163 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Salsman, J.M., Butt, Z., Pilkonis, P.A., Cyranowski, J.M., Zill, N., Hendrie, H.C., … Cella, D. (2013). Emotion assessment using the NIH Toolbox. Neurology, 80(11 Suppl 3), S76–86. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e3182872e11 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shuey, K.M. & Willson, A.E. (2008). Cumulative disadvantage and black-white disparities in life-course health trajectories. Research on Aging, 30(2), 200–225. https://doi.org/10.1177/0164027507311151 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Siedlecki, K.L., Manly, J.J., Brickman, A.M., Schupf, N., Tang, M.-X., & Stern, Y. (2010). Do neuropsychological tests have the same meaning in Spanish speakers as they do in English speakers? Neuropsychology, 24(3), 402–411. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017515 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Soederberg Miller, L.M. & Lachman, M.E. (1999). The sense of control and cognitive aging: Toward a model of mediational processes. Social Cognition and Aging, 17–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978–012345260–3/50003–3 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stawski, R.S., Sliwinski, M.J., Almeida, D.M., & Smyth, J.M. (2008). Reported exposure and emotional reactivity to daily stressors: The roles of adult age and global perceived stress. Psychology and Aging, 23(1), 52–61. https://doi.org/10.1037/0882–7974.23.1.52 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Steffens, D.C. (2017, July 1). Late-life depression and the prodromes of dementia. JAMA Psychiatry. American Medical Association. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2017.0658 Google Scholar
Tafet, G.E. & Bernardini, R. (2003). Psychoneuroendocrinological links between chronic stress and depression. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 27(6), 893–903. ––https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278–5846(03)00162–3 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tang, M.X., Cross, P., Andrews, H., Jacobs, D.M., Small, S., Bell, K., … Mayeux, R. (2001). Incidence of AD in African-Americans, Caribbean Hispanics, and Caucasians in northern Manhattan. Neurology, 56(1), 49–56. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.56.1.49 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tsai, A.C., Chi, S.-H. & Wang, J.-Y. (2015). Association of perceived stress with depressive symptoms in older Taiwanese: Results of a population-based study. Geriatrics & Gerontology International, 15(5), 535–543. https://doi.org/10.1111/ggi.12307 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Turner, A.D., James, B.D., Capuano, A.W., Aggarwal, N.T., & Barnes, L.L. (2017). Perceived stress and cognitive decline in different cognitive domains in a cohort of older African Americans. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 25(1), 25–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jagp.2016.10.003 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Turner, R.J. & Avison, W.R. (2003). Status variations in stress exposure: Implications for the interpretation of research on race, socioeconomic status, and gender. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 44(4), 488. https://doi.org/10.2307/1519795 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Turvey, C.L., Wallace, R.B., & Herzog, R. (1999). A revised CES-D measure of depressive symptoms and a DSM-based measure of major depressive episodes in the elderly. International Psychogeriatrics, 11(2), 139–148. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1041610299005694 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ulbrich, P.M., Warheit, G.J., & Zimmerman, R.S. (1989). Race, socioeconomic status, and psychological distress: An examination of differential vulnerability. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 30(1), 131. https://doi.org/10.2307/2136918 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Verma, R., Balhara, Y.P.S., & Gupta, C.S. (2011). Gender differences in stress response: Role of developmental and biological determinants. Industrial Psychiatry Journal, 20(1), 4–10. https://doi.org/10.4103/0972–6748.98407 Google ScholarPubMed
Vines, A.I., Ta, M., Esserman, D., & Baird, D.D. (2009). A comparison of the occurrence and perceived stress of major life events in black and white women. Women & Health, 49(5), 368–380. https://doi.org/10.1080/03630240903238743 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
VonDras, D.D., Powless, M.R., Olson, A.K., Wheeler, D., & Snudden, A.L. (2005). Differential effects of everyday stress on the episodic memory test performances of young, mid-life, and older adults. Aging & Mental Health, 9(1), 60–70. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607860412331323782 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wallston, K.A., Wallston, B.S., Smith, S., & Dobbins, C.J. (1987). Perceived control and health. Current Psychology, 6(1), 5–25. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02686633 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
West, G.E. & Simons, R.L. (1983). Sex differences in stress, coping resources, and illness among the elderly. Research on Aging, 5(2), 235–268. https://doi.org/10.1177/0164027583005002006 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, D.R., González, H.M., Neighbors, H., Nesse, R., Abelson, J.M., Sweetman, J., & Jackson, J.S. (2007). Prevalence and distribution of major depressive disorder in African Americans, Caribbean Blacks, and Non-Hispanic Whites. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64(3), 305. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.64.3.305 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williams, D.R., Yan Yu, Y., Jackson, J.S., & Anderson, N.B. (1997). Racial differences in physical and mental health. Journal of Health Psychology, 2(3), 335–351. https://doi.org/10.1177/135910539700200305 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Windsor, T.D. & Anstey, K.J. (2008). A longitudinal investigation of perceived control and cognitive performance in young, midlife and older adults. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 15(6), 744–763. https://doi.org/10.1080/13825580802348570 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zahodne, L.B., Nowinski, C.J., Gershon, R.C., & Manly, J.J. (2014). Depressive symptoms are more strongly related to executive functioning and episodic memory among african American compared with Non-Hispanic White older adults. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 29(7), 663–669. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acu045 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zahodne, L.B., Schupf, N., & Brickman, A.M. (2018). Control beliefs are associated with preserved memory function in the face of low hippocampal volume among diverse older adults. Brain Imaging and Behavior, 12(4), 1112–1120. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11682–017–9776-x CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zahodne, L.B., Stern, Y., & Manly, J.J. (2014). Depressive symptoms precede memory decline, but not vice versa, in non-demented older adults. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society. https://doi.org/10.1111/jgs.12600 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zahodne, L.B., Watson, C.W.M., Seehra, S., & Martinez, M.N. (2017). Positive psychosocial factors and cognition in ethnically diverse older adults. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 24, 294–304. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617717000935 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zahodne, L.B., Sol, K., & Kraal, Z. (2017). Psychosocial pathways to racial/ethnic inequalities in late-life memory trajectories. Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbx113 Google Scholar
Zimmerman, M.E., Ezzati, A., Katz, M.J., Lipton, M.L., Brickman, A.M., Sliwinski, M.J., & Lipton, R.B. (2016). Perceived stress is differentially related to hippocampal subfield volumes among older adults. PLOS ONE, 11(5), e0154530. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0154530 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Supplementary material: File

Zaheed et al. supplementary material

Zaheed et al. supplementary material 1

Download Zaheed et al. supplementary material(File)
File 25.6 KB
Supplementary material: File

Zaheed et al. supplementary material

Zaheed et al. supplementary material 2

Download Zaheed et al. supplementary material(File)
File 1.6 MB