Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-xbtfd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-18T08:51:01.716Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Constitution transformation

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 September 2021

Cheryl Saunders Open the ORCID record for Cheryl Saunders [Opens in a new window]
Cheryl Saunders*
Affiliation:
Melbourne Law School, University of Melbourne
*
Email: c.saunders@unimelb.edu.au
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This article explores the extent to which (if at all) the concept of a constitution is undergoing change in the conditions of globalization that characterize the early decades of the twenty-first century, to an extent that might be described as transformation. The question is prompted both by familiar manifestations of the interdependence of domestic constitutional and international law and practice, and by the interpretation placed on them by some of the literature on global constitutionalism. Some – although by no means all – of the literature and the experience on which it draws relate to the extent of transnational influence on the way in which constitutions now are made or changed: constitution transformation in the narrow, or more particular, sense. The article seeks to answer this question with reference to global constitutional experience, including – critically – experience in Asia, as one of the largest and most diverse regions of the world, too often omitted from studies of this kind. To this end, the article considers whether the concept of a constitution can be regarded as having been globally shared in any event; examines the phenomena associated with globalization that might suggest a paradigm change; and considers the arguments that mitigate against change, at least on a global scale. In exploring these factors, it necessarily considers the extent to which states in different regions of the world diverge in their experiences of the internationalization of constitutional law. The article concludes that, on balance, it is not plausible to argue that the generic concept of a constitution has changed, with global effect. It does, however, acknowledge that current conditions of globalization present a series of challenges for national constitutions. Responding to them might itself be regarded as an exercise in global constitutionalism.

Keywords

Asian constitutionalismconstitution transformationglobalizationnational constitutionalismtransnational influence
Type
Research Article
Information
Global Constitutionalism , Volume 10 , Issue 2 , July 2021 , pp. 237 - 255
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 P Langa, ‘Transformative Constitutionalism’ (2006) 17(3) Stellenbosch Law Review 351.

2 A recent, particularly relevant, addition to a voluminous literature is Suami, T, A Peters, D Vanoverbeke and M Kumm (eds), Global Constitutionalism from European and East Asian Perspectives (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2018)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

3 At least 110 new constitutions have been made over this 30-year period; others have been substantially amended: Central Intelligence Agency, The World Factbook, available at <https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/307.html>.

4 Shaffer, G, Ginsburg, T and Halliday, TC (eds), Constitution-Making and Transnational Legal Order (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2019)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

5 For example, Ginsburg, T, Halliday, TC and Shaffer, G, ‘Constitution-Making as Transnational Legal Ordering’ in Shaffer, G, Ginsburg, T and Halliday, TC (eds), Constitution-Making and Transnational Legal Order (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2019) 1, 2, 9Google Scholar.

6 Loughlin, M, Foundations of Public Law (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2010) 276CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

7 Grimm, D, ‘The Achievement of Constitutionalism and its Prospects in a Changed World’ in Dobner, P and Loughlin, M (eds), The Twilight of Constitutionalism? (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2010) 3, 9–10 Google Scholar.

8 Although cf. D Feldman, ‘“Which in Your Case You Have Not Got”: Constitutionalism at Home and Abroad’ (2011) 64 Current Legal Problems 117.

9 Hirschl, R, ‘The Strategic Foundations of Constitutions’ in DJ Galligan and M Versteeg (eds), Social and Political Foundations of Constitutions (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2013) 157 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

10 G Frankenberg, ‘Constitutional Transfer: the IKEA Theory Revisited’ (2010) 8 I-CON: International Journal of Constitutional Law 563.

11 J–R Yeh and W–C Chang, ‘The Changing Landscape of Modern Constitutionalism: Transitional Perspective’ (2009) 4 National Taiwan University Law Review 145; Langa (n 1). Yeh and Chang have also developed a taxonomy that includes ‘transnational’ constitutions: J–R Yeh and W–C Chang, ‘The Emergence of Transnational Constitutionalism: Its Features, Challenges and Solutions’ (2008) 27 Penn State International Law Review 89. Insofar as they apply this category to national constitutions in ways that raise the possibility of an external source of legitimacy, the concept of a constitution is potentially engaged. I consider transnational constitutions further in Part III.

12 Yeh and Chang, ‘The Changing Landscape of Modern Constitutionalism’ (n 11).

13 Ibid. A transitional constitution might also, in some contexts, refer to a constitution intended to last for only for an interim period, with obvious implications for durability and potentially also for legitimacy: K Zulueta-Fülscher, ‘Interim Constitutions: Peacekeeping and Democracy-Building Tools’ (International IDEA, Policy Paper 2015).

14 Langa (n 1); M Hailbronner, ‘Transformative Constitutionalism: Not Only in the Global South’ (2017) 65(3) American Journal of Comparative Law 527.

15 Loewenstein, K, Political Power and the Governmental Process (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1957) 148–49Google Scholar.

16 G Sartori, ‘Constitutionalism: A Preliminary Discussion’ (1962) 56(4) American Political Science Review 853.

17 Chen, AHY, ‘Constitutions, Constitutional Practice and Constitutionalism in East Asia’ in Antons, C (ed), Routledge Handbook of Asian Law (Routledge, London, 2016) 75 Google Scholar.

18 Ibid 79, 88.

19 ‘Separation of powers’ is one example, which I have previously explored: Saunders, C, ‘Theoretical Underpinnings of Separations of Powers’ in Jacobsohn, G and Schor, M (eds), Comparative Constitutional Theory (Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, 2018) 66 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

20 Among many works that make the point, see the complex origins of popular sovereignty and the ideas associated with it in Lee, D, Popular Sovereignty in Early Modern Constitutional Thought (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2016) 1–20 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

21 Grimm, D, Sovereignty (Columbia University Press, New York, 2015) 39–40 Google Scholar. Flow-on implications of the difference include understanding of the relations between people and representatives, both generally and in the context of constitutional change.

22 Marbury v Madison 5 U.S. 137 (1803); Zoller, E, Introduction to Public Law: A Comparative Study (Martinus Nijhoff, Leiden, 2008) 220–21CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Constitution of the French Republic 1958 Art 61-1.

23 R (Miller) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union [2018] AC 61.

24 Feldman (n 8) 123.

25 Most obviously New Zealand, which also has no overriding constitutional instrument. Many of the other states in the former British Commonwealth share some similar attitudes, however, affecting the scope of the fundamental law, modes of interpretation and understandings of sources of authority.

26 Grimm (n 7) 6–8.

27 Ibid 9.

28 L Lacchè, ‘Granted Constitutions. The Theory of octroi and Constitutional Experiments in Europe in the Aftermath of the French Revolution’ (2013) 9(2) European Constitutional Law Review 285.

29 J-R Yeh and W-C Chang, ‘The Emergence of East Asian Constitutionalism: Features in Comparison’(2011) 59(3) American Journal of Comparative Law 805, 819.

30 N Eeoseewong, ‘The Thai Cultural Constitution’ (2003) 3 Kyoto Review of South East Asia, available at <https://kyotoreview.org/issue-3-nations-and-stories/the-thai-cultural-constitution>; G Powles, ‘Testing Tradition in Tonga: Approaches to Constitutional Change’ (2007) 13 Revue Juridique Polynésienne 111.

31 Yeh and Chang (n 29).

32 Eeoseewong (n 30).

33 Ibid.

34 Roznai, Y, Unconstitutional Constitutional Amendments: The Limits of Amendment Powers (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2017)Google Scholar.

35 The post-1989 phenomenon is well known. For the earlier periods, see Rosenboim, O, The Emergence of Globalism: Visions of World Order in Britain and the United States, 1939–1950 (Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 2017)Google Scholar.

36 For example, Omae, K, The End of the Nation State: The Rise of Regional Economies (Simon and Schuster, New York, 1995)Google Scholar.

37 Alesina, A and Spolaore, E, The Size of Nations (MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 2003)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

38 Joseph Raz, ‘The Future of State Sovereignty’ (Kings College London Dickson Poon School of Law Legal Studies Research Paper No 2017–42).

39 Hathaway, OA and Shapiro, SJ, The Internationalists: How A Radical Plan to Outlaw War Remade the World (Simon and Schuster, New York, 2017)Google Scholar.

40 M Mazower, Governing the World: The History of an Idea (Penguin, New York, 2012); Charter of the United Nations 1945 Ch VII.

41 Samuel Moyn, The Last Utopia: Human Rights in History (Belknap Press, Cambridge, MA, 2010) Ch 5.

42 On motivation, see OA Hathaway, ‘Why Do Countries Commit to Human Rights Treaties?’ (2007) 51(4) Journal of Conflict Resolution 588.

43 See, for example, GH Fox, ‘International Law and the Entitlement to Democracy after War’ (2003) 9(2) Global Governance 179.

44 Hathaway (n 42).

45 Both de jure and functional monism may be relevant: on the latter, see MA Waters, ‘Creeping Monism: The Judicial Trend toward Interpretive Incorporation of Human Rights Treaties’ (2007) 107(3) Columbia Law Review 628.

46 M Wiechers, ‘Namibia: The 1982 Constitutional Principles and Their Legal Significance’ (1989–90) 15 South African Yearbook of International Law 1.

47 Moyn (n 41).

48 P Craig, ‘Transnational Constitution-Making: The Contribution of the Venice Commission on Law and Democracy’ in G Shaffer, T Ginsburg and TC Halliday (eds), Constitution-Making and Transnational Legal Order (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2019) 156.

49 Arts 2, 7.

50 M Wiebusch, ‘The Role of Regional Organizations in the Protection of Constitutionalism’ (International IDEA, Discussion Paper 17, 2016).

51 Hsien-Li, T, ‘Regional Organizations’ in Chesterman, S, Owada, H and Saul, B (eds), The Oxford Handbook of International Law in Asia and the Pacific (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2019) 37 Google Scholar.

52 UN Secretary–General, ‘Guidance Note of the Secretary–General: United Nations Assistance to Constitution-making Processes’ (United Nations April 2009) available at <https://www.un.org/ruleoflaw/files/Guidance_Note_United_Nations_Assistance_to_Constitution-making_Processes_FINAL.pdf>.

53 UN Peacemaker, ‘Seventh Issue: December 2017’ (United Nations December 2017) available at <https://peacemaker.un.org/Constitutions/Newsletter>, describing constitutional change as ‘pivotal to ensuring peace and stability’.

54 UN Human Rights, ‘Human Rights and Constitution Making’ (United Nations 2018) available at <https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/ConstitutionMaking_EN.pdf>.

55 UN Development Programme, ‘UNDP Guidance Note on Constitution-Making Support’ (United Nations 20 September 2016) available at <https://www.undp.org/content/dam/undp/library/Democratic%20Governance/Parliamentary%20Development/Constitution-Making-Support-Guidance-Note.pdf>.

56 Saunders, C, ‘International Involvement in Constitution Making’ in Landau, D and Lerner, H (eds), Comparative Constitution Making (Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, 2019) 69 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

57 General Framework Agreement for Peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina 1995, Annex 4.

58 Al-Ali, Z, The Struggle for Iraq’s Future: How Corruption, Incompetence and Sectarianism Have Undermined Democracy (Yale University Press, New Haven, CT, 2014)Google Scholar.

59 For example, UNSC Resolution 2254 (2015) in relation to Syria.

60 See UN Secretary-General (n 52) and UN Development Programme (n 55).

61 But see the statement by the Secretary-General on the launch of the Syrian Constitutional Committee, describing it as ‘Syrian-owned and Syrian-led’: ‘UN Chief Announces Progress on Committee to Shape Syria’s Political Future’ (UN News, 23 September 2019), available at <https://news.un.org/en/story/2019/09/1047092>.

62 A Peters, ‘The Globalization of State Constitutions’ in JE Nijman and A Nollkaemper (eds), New Perspectives on the Divide Between National and International Law (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2007) 251, 257.

63 A Kemmerer, ‘The Pouvoir Constituant in Times of Transition: A Comment on Andrew Arato and Philipp Dann’ (2008) available at <https://ssrn.com/abstract=1147018>.

64 Schneiderman, D, ‘Global Constitutionalism and International Economic Law: The Case of International Investment Law’ in Bungenberg, M, Herrmann, C, Krajewski, M and Terhechte, J (eds), European Yearbook of International Economic Law 2016 (Springer, Heidelberg, 2016) 23 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

65 Grimm (n 7) 16.

66 Hence the more cautious claims for global constitutionalism in East Asia in Suami et al. (n 2) 6–15.

67 For example, ‘Commission Takes Hungary to Court for Criminalizing Activities in Support of Asylum Seekers and Opens New Infringement for Non-provision of Food in Transit Zones’ (European Commission 25 July 2019) available at <https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/IP_19_4260>; Directorate of Communications, ‘Implementing ECHR judgments: Latest Decisions from the Council of Europe’s Committee of Ministers’ (Council of Europe, 15 March 2019), available at <https://search.coe.int/directorate_of_communications/Pages/result_details.aspx?ObjectId=09000016809385cc>.

68 L Pierdominici, ‘The Theory of EU Constitutional Pluralism: A Crisis in a Crisis?’ (2017) 9(2) Perspectives on Federalism 119, available at <http://www.on-federalism.eu/attachments/262_download.pdf>.

69 LK Naswarin, ‘Towards the Establishment of an International Constitutional Court’ (2016) 10(4) Vienna Journal on International Constitutional Law 386.

70 J Kelsey, ‘UNCITRAL Working Group III: Promoting Alternatives to Investor-State Arbitration as ISDS reform’ (Investment Treaty News, 2 October 2019), available at <http://rspace.iisd.org/itn/2019/10/02/uncitral-working-group-iii-promoting-alternatives-to-investor-state-arbitration-as-isds-reform-jane-kelsey>.

71 For example, R Bellamy, A Republican Europe of States: Cosmopolitanism, Intergovernmentalism and Democracy in the EU ( Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2019); Suami et al. (n 2) 4.

72 Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (The Free Press, New York, 1992).

73 Information Office, ‘China and the World in the New Era’ (State Council, People’s Republic of China, September 2019) available at <http://english.www.gov.cn/archive/whitepaper/201909/27/content_WS5d8d80f9c6d0bcf8c4c142ef.html>.

74 Suami et al. (n 2) 8.

75 The first three of these points could also be reformulated as cautious evidence of paradigm change, however, reflecting the delicate balance of these issues in the European Union. See, for example, E Cloots ‘National Identity, Constitutional Identity and Sovereignty in the EU’ (2016) 45(2) Netherlands Journal of Legal Philosophy 82.

76 The G7+, ‘Dili Declaration; A New Vision for Peacebuilding and Statebuilding’ (International Dialogue of Peacebuilding and Statebuilding, 10 April 2010), available at <http://www.oecd.org/dac/gender-development/45250308.pdf>.

77 UN Secretary-General (n 52).

78 UN Security Council, ‘Special Envoy Hails Formation of Constitutional Committee as “Sign of Hope for Long-Suffering Syrians” in briefing to Security Council’ (United Nations, 30 September 2019), available at <https://www.un.org/press/en/2019/sc13967.doc.htm>.

79 On a range of possibilities, see Melbourne Forum, From Big Bang to Incrementalism: Choices and Challenges in Constitution Building (Final Report 2017), available at <https://law.unimelb.edu.au/constitutional-transformations/MF/melbourne-forum-2017/interim-report>.

80 The phrase was most prominently coined by Ackerman, Bruce, We the People: Foundations (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1993)Google Scholar, providing a basis for an extensive subsequent literature.

81 Albert, R, Guruswamy, M and Basnyat, N (eds), Founding Moments in Constitutionalism (Hart, Oxford, 2019)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

82 T Groppi and M–C Ponthoreau, The Use of Foreign Precedents by Constitutional Judges (Hart, Oxford, 2013); on experience in Asia, see C Saunders, ‘Judicial Engagement’ in R Dixon and T Ginsburg (eds), Comparative Constitutional Law in Asia (Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, 2014) 80.

83 Hahm, C and Kim, SH, Making We the People: Democratic Constitutional Founding in Postwar Japan and South Korea (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2015)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

84 Ibid, in relation to Japan and Korea.

85 Al-Ali (n 58).

86 M Böckenförde, ‘From Words to Deeds: The Implementation of Constitutions’ (Democracy Reporting International, Briefing Paper 81, May 2017), available at <http://democracy-reporting.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/DRI-Briefing-Paper_Implementation-of-Constitutions_May-2017.pdf>.

87 UN Secretary-General (n 52).

88 C Saunders, ‘Global Constitutionalism: Myth and Reality’ in JNE Varuhas and S Wilson Stark (eds), The Frontiers of Public Law (Hart, Oxford, 2020) 19.

89 A Dziedzic and C Saunders, ‘Constitutional Implementation for Sustainable Peace’ (Folke Bernadotte Academy, Research Report June 2019), available at <https://ssrn.com/abstract=3442666>.

90 Hahm and Kim (n 83).

91 On external sovereignty see Grimm (n 21) 77–91.

92 Membership of regional organizations often is structured by the Constitutions of member states. Constitutions made in recent years typically provide explicitly for the treaty-making process and, increasingly, for the status of international law.