Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gvvz8 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-21T11:32:36.320Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Trajectories of depressive symptoms and stressful life events among male and female adolescents in divorced and nondivorced families

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 February 2006

XIAOJIA GE ,
MISAKI N. NATSUAKI  and
RAND D. CONGER
XIAOJIA GE
Affiliation:
University of California, Davis
MISAKI N. NATSUAKI
Affiliation:
University of California, Davis
RAND D. CONGER
Affiliation:
University of California, Davis
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This 11-year longitudinal study models the trajectories of depressive symptoms among approximately 550 females and males raised in divorced and nondivorced families in the rural Midwest. Using multilevel analyses, we demonstrate that, first, depressive symptoms changed according to a curvilinear pattern, especially for females; they increased during early to midadolescence and then declined in late adolescence to young adulthood. Second, compared with males, females experienced a greater number of depressive symptoms in adolescence and early adulthood. Third, children who experienced parental divorce by age 15 manifested a sharper increase in depressive symptoms compared to those from nondivorced families. Fourth, stressful life events children experienced shortly after parental divorce mediated the effect of parental divorce on depressive symptoms. Fifth and finally, time-varying stressful life events, particularly those related to relationship and personal loss, were significantly associated with the trajectories of depressive symptoms.During the past several years, support for this research has come from multiple sources including the National Institute of Mental Health (MH00567, MH19734, MH43270, MH48165, MH51361), the National Institute on Drug Abuse (DA05347), the Bureau of Maternal and Child Health (MCJ-109572), the MacArthur Foundation Research Network on Successful Adolescent Development among Youth in High-Risk Settings, the Iowa Agriculture and Home Economics Experiment Station (Project No. 3320), and the California Agriculture Experiment Station (CA-D*-HCD-6092-H).

Type
Research Article
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 18 , Issue 1 , March 2006 , pp. 253 - 273
Copyright
© 2006 Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Amato, P. R., & Keith, B. (1991). Parental divorce and the well-being of children: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 110, 26–46.Google Scholar
Amato, P. R., Loomis, L. S., & Booth, A. (1995). Parental divorce, marital conflict, and offspring well-being during early adulthood. Social Forces, 73, 895–915.Google Scholar
Aseltine, R. H., Jr. (1996). Pathways linking parental divorce with adolescent depression. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 37, 133–148.Google Scholar
Aseltine, R. H., Jr., & Kessler, R. C. (1993). Marital disruption and depression in a community sample. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 34, 237–251.Google Scholar
Avenevoli, S., & Steinberg, L. (2001). The continuity of depression across the adolescent transition. In H. Reese & R. Kail (Eds.), Advances in child development and behavior (Vol. 28, pp. 139–173). New York: Academic Press.
Buchanan, C. M., Maccoby, E. E., & Dornbusch, S. M. (1996). Adolescents after divorce. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Chase-Lansdale, P. L., Cherlin, A. J., & Kiernan, K. E. (1995). The long-term effects of parental divorce on the mental health of young adults: A developmental perspective. Child Development, 66, 1614–1634.Google Scholar
Cherlin, A. J., Chase-Lansdale, P. L., & McRae, C. (1998). Effects of parental divorce on mental health throughout the life course. American Sociological Review, 63, 239–249.Google Scholar
Cherlin, A. J., & Furstenberg, F. F., Jr. (1994). Stepfamilies in the United States: A reconsideration. Annual Review of Sociology, 120, 359–381.Google Scholar
Cherlin, A. J., Furstenberg, F. F., Jr., Chase-Lansdale, P. L., Kiernan, K. F., Robins, P. K., Morrison, D. R., et al. (1991). Longitudinal studies of effects of divorce on children in Great Britain and the United States. Science, 252, 1386–1389.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (2002). A developmental psychopathology perspective on adolescence. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70, 6–20.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. L. (1998). The development of depression in children and adolescents. American Psychologist, 53, 221–241.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Walker, E. F. (2001). Stress and development: Biological and psychological consequences. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 413–418.Google Scholar
Compas, B. E. (1987). Stress and life events during childhood and adolescence. Clinical Psychology Review, 7, 275–302.Google Scholar
Compas, B. E., Ey, S., & Grant, K. E. (1993). Taxonomy, assessment, and diagnosis of depression during adolescence. Psychological Bulletin, 114, 323–344.Google Scholar
Compas, B. E., Slavin, L. A., Wagner, B. M., & Vannatta, K. (1986). Relationship of life events and social support with psychological dysfunction among adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 15, 205–221.Google Scholar
Conger, R. D., & Elder, G. H., Jr. (Eds.). (1994). Families in troubled times: Adapting to change in rural America. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
Conger, R. D., Lorenz, F. O., Elder, G. H., Jr., Simons, R. L., & Ge, X. (1993). Husband and wife differences in response to undesirable life events. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 34, 71–88.Google Scholar
Derogatis, L. R. (1983). SCL-90-R administration, scoring, and procedure manual—II. Towson, MD: Clinical Psychometric Research.
Garber, J., Keiley, M. K., & Martin, N. C. (2002). Developmental trajectories of adolescents' depressive symptoms: Predictors of change. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70, 79–95.Google Scholar
Ge, X., Conger, R. D., & Elder, G. H., Jr. (1996). Coming of age too early: Pubertal influences on girls' vulnerability to psychological distress. Child Development, 67, 3386–3400.Google Scholar
Ge, X., Conger, R. D., & Elder, G. H., Jr. (2001). Pubertal transitions, stressful life events, and the emergence of gender differences in depression during adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 37, 404–417.Google Scholar
Ge, X., Kim, I. J., Brody, G. H., Conger, R. D., Simons, R. L., Gibbons, F. X., et al. (2003). It's about timing and change: Pubertal transition effects on symptoms of major depression among African American youth. Developmental Psychology, 39, 430–439.Google Scholar
Ge, X., Lorenz, F. O., Conger, R. D., Elder, G. H., Jr., & Simons, R. L. (1994). Trajectories of stressful life events and depressive symptoms during adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 30, 467–483.Google Scholar
Gore, S., & Aseltine, R. H., Jr. (1995). Protective processes in adolescence: matching stressors with social resources. American Journal of Community Psychology, 23, 301–325.Google Scholar
Hammen, C., Henry, R., & Daley, S. E. (2000). Depression and sensitization to stressors among young women as a function of childhood adversity. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 8, 782–787.Google Scholar
Hammen, C., & Mayol, A. (1982). Depression and cognitive characteristics of stressful life-event types. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 91, 165–174.Google Scholar
Hammen, C., Mayol, A., deMayo, R., & Marks, T. (1986). Initial symptom levels and the life even–depression relationship. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 95, 114–122.Google Scholar
Hankin, B. L., Abramson, L. Y., Moffitt, T. E., Silva, P. A., McGee, R., & Angell, K. E. (1998). Development of depression from preadolescence to young adulthood: Emerging gender differences in a 10-year longitudinal study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107, 128–140.Google Scholar
Hetherington, E. M., Bridges, M., Insabella, G. M. (1998). What matters? What does not? Five perspectives on the association between marital transitions and children's adjustment. American Psychologist, 53, 167–184.Google Scholar
Kandel, D. B., & Davies, M. (1986). Adult sequelae of adolescent depressive symptoms. Archives of General Psychiatry, 43, 255–262.Google Scholar
Kendler, K. S., Kessler, R. C., Walters, E. E., MacLean, C. J., Sham, P. C., Neale, M. C., et al. (1995). Stressful life events, genetic liability and onset of an episode of major depression in women. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 833–842.Google Scholar
Kessler, R. C., & Magee, W. J. (1994). The disaggregation of vulnerability to depression as a function of the determinants of onset and recurrence. In W. R. Avison & I. H. Gotlib (Eds.), Stress and mental health: Contemporary issues and prospects for the future (pp. 239–258). New York: Plenum Press.
Kessler, R. C., & McLeod, J. D. (1984). Gender differences in vulnerability to undesirable life events. American Sociological Review, 49, 620–631.Google Scholar
Maciejewski, P. K., Prigenrson, H. G., & Mazure, C. M. (2001). Gender differences in event-related risk for major depression. Psychological Medicine, 31, 593–604.Google Scholar
McLanahan, S., & Booth, K. (1989). Mother-only families: Problems, prospects, and politics. Journal of Marriage and the Families, 51, 557–580.Google Scholar
McLanahan, S., & Sandefur, G. (1994). Growing up with a single parents: What hurts, what helps. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
McLeod, J. D. (1991). Childhood parental loss and adult depression. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 32, 205–220.Google Scholar
Mirowsky, J. (1996). Age and the gender gap in depression. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 37, 362–380.Google Scholar
Mirowsky, J., & Ross, C. E. (1992). Age and depression. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 33, 187–205.Google Scholar
Monroe, S. M., & Depue, R. A. (1991). Life stress and depression. In J. Becker & A. Kleiman (Eds.), Psychosocial aspects of depression (pp. 1011–130). New York: Erlbaum.
Monroe, S. M., Rohde, P., Seeley, J. R., & Lewinsohn, P. M. (1999). Relationship loss as a prospective risk factor for first onset of major depressive disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 108, 606–614.Google Scholar
Nazroo, J. Y., Edwards, A. C., & Brown, G. W. (1997). Gender differences in the onset of depression following a shared life event: A study of couples. Psychological Medicine, 27, 9–19.Google Scholar
Nesselroade, J. R., & Baltes, P. B. (1979). Longitudinal research in the study of behavior and development. New York: Academic Press.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Girgus, J. (1994). The emergence of gender differences in depression during adolescence. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 424–443.Google Scholar
O'Connor, T. G., Thorpe, K., Dunn, J., & Golding, J. (1999). Parental divorce and adjustment in adulthood: Findings from a community sample. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 40, 777–789.Google Scholar
Paykel, E. S. (1979). Recent life events in the development of the depressive disorders. In R. A. Depue (Ed.), The psychobiology of the depressive disorders: Implications for the effects of stress. New York: Academic Press.
Pearlin, L. I. (1989). The sociological study of stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 30, 241–256.Google Scholar
Pearlin, L. I., & Johnson, J. S. (1977). Marital status, life-strain and depression. American Sociological Review, 42, 704–715.Google Scholar
Petersen, A. C., Compas, B. E., Brooks-Gunn, J., Stemmler, M., Ey, S., & Grant, K. E. (1993). Depression during adolescence. American Psychologist, 48, 155–168.Google Scholar
Post, R. M. (1992). Transduction of psychosocial stress into neurobiology of recurrent affective disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 149, 999–1010.Google Scholar
Raudenbush, S. W., & Bryk, A. S. (2002). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Ross, C. E., & Mirowsky, J. (1999). Parental divorce, life disruption, and adult depression. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 61, 1034–1045.Google Scholar
Rudolph, K. D., Hammen, C., Burge, D., Lindberg, N., Herzberg, D., & Daley, S. E. (2000). Toward an interpersonal life-stress model of depression: The developmental context of stress generation. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 215–234.Google Scholar
Rueter, M. A., Scaramella, L., Wallace, L. E., & Conger, R. D. (1999). First onset of depressive or anxiety disorders predicted by the longitudinal course of internalizing symptoms and parent–adolescent disagreement. Archives of General Psychiatry, 56, 726–732.Google Scholar
Rutter, M., & Quinton, D. (1977). Psychiatric disorder: Ecological factors and concepts of causation. In H. McGurk (Ed.), Ecological factors in human development (pp. 173–187). Amsterdam: North Holland.
Schaie, K. W. (1965). A general model for the study of developmental problems. Psychological Bulletin, 64, 91–107.Google Scholar
Schieman, S., Van Gundy, K, & Taylor, J. (2001). Status, role, and resource explanations for age patterns in psychological distress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 42, 80–96.Google Scholar
Simons, R. L. & Associates (1996). Understanding differences between divorced and intact families: Stress, interaction, and child outcome. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Swearingen, E. M., & Cohen, L.H. (1985a). Life events and psychological distress: A prospective study of young adolescents. Developmental Psychology, 21, 1045–1054.Google Scholar
Swearingen, E. M., & Cohen, L.H. (1985b). Measurement of adolescents' life events: The Junior High Life Experiences Survey. American Journal of Community Psychology, 13, 69–85.Google Scholar
Tausig, M. (1982). Measuring life events. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 23, 52–64.Google Scholar
Turner, R. J., & Lloyd, D. A. (1995). Lifetime traumas and mental health: The significance of cumulative adversity. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 36, 360–376.Google Scholar
Wichstrom, L. (1999). The emergence of gender difference in depressed mood during adolescence: The role of intensified gender socialization. Developmental Psychology, 35, 232–245.Google Scholar