1. See, for example, Grönvik, Lorenz, Die Taufe in der Theologie Martin Luthers (Göttingen, 1968);Google ScholarBrinkel, Karl, Die Lehre Luthers von der Fides Infantium bei Kindertaufe (Berlin, 1958);Google ScholarFerel, Martin, Gepredigte Taufe: Eine homiletische Untersuchung zur Taufpredigte bet Luther (Tübingen, 1969);Google ScholarJetter, Werner, Die Taufe beim Jungen Luther (Tübingen, 1954).Google ScholarCompare the “two front” groundwork laid by Paul Althaus in “Martin Luther über die Kindertaufe,” Theologische Literaturzeitung 73 (1948): 705–714.Google ScholarAlso see Cottrell, Jack Warren, “Covenant and Baptism in the Theology of Huldreich Zwingli” (Th.D. diss., Princeton Theological Seminary, 1971);Google ScholarHemmann, Carl, “Zwingli's Stellung zur Tauffrage im literarischen Kampf mit den Anabaptisten,” Schweizerische Theologische Zeitschrift 36 (1919): 29–33, 79–85;Google ScholarUsteri, Johann Martin, “Darstellung der Tauflehre Zwinglis,” Theologische Studien und Kritiken 3 (1884): 205–284;Google Scholar and Yoder, John Howard, “The Turning Point in the Zwinglian Revolution,” Mennonite Quarterly Review 32 (1958): 128–140.Google Scholar

2. See, for example, the studies by Ganoczy, Alexandre, Calvin: théologien de l'église et du ministère, Unam Sanctam 48 (Paris, 1964), pp. 183–222;Google ScholarHöpfl, Harro, The Christian Polity of John Calvin (Cambridge, U.K., 1982);CrossRefGoogle Scholarand Whale, J. S., The Protestant Tradition: An Essay in Interpretation (Cambridge, U.K., 1955), pp. 145–162.Google Scholar

3. Usteri, Johann Martin, “Calvins Sakraments- und Tauflehre,” Theologische Studien und Kritiken 3 (1884): 419–456, 422.Google ScholarAlso see Usteri, , “Darstellung der Tauflehre Zwinglis,” Theologische Studien und Kritiken 2 (1882): 205–284;Google ScholarUsteri, , “Die Stellung der Strassburger Reformatoren Butzer und Capito zur Tauffrage,” Theologische Studien und Kritiken 3 (1884): 456–524;Google ScholarUsteri, , “Vertiefung der Zwinglischen Sakraments- und Tauflehre bei Bullinger,” Theologische Studien und Kritiken 4 (1883):730–758;Google ScholarUsteri, , “Weitere Beiträge zur Geschichte der Tauflehre der Reformierten Kirche,” Theologische Studien und Kritiken 3 (1883): 610–620.Google Scholar

4. Beckmann, Joachim, Vom Sakrament bei Calvin (Tübingen, 1926).Google Scholar

5. Boudriot, W., “Calvins Tauflehre im Lichte der katholischen Sakramentslehre,” Reformierte Kirchenzeitung 80 (1930): 153–155, 161–164.Google Scholar

6. de Quervain, A., “Der theologische Gehalt von Calvins Taufformular,” Reformierle Kirchenzeitung 84 (1934): 261–263;Google ScholarBenoît, Jean Daniel, “Calvin et le baptême des enfants,” Revue d'histoire et de philosophie religieuses 17 (1937): 457–473;Google ScholarNiesel, Wilhelm, Die Theologie Calvins (Munich, 1938).Google Scholar

7. Kreck, Walter, “Die Lehre von der Taufe bei Calvin,” Evangelische Theologie 6 (1948): 237–254.Google Scholar

8. Wallace, Ronald S., Calvin's Doctrine of the Word and Sacrament, (Edinburgh and London, 1953);Google ScholarTorrance, T. F., “L'enseignment baptismal de Calvin,” Revue de theologie et de philosophie 9 (1959): 141–152;Google ScholarGrislis, Egil, “Calvin's Doctrine of Baptism,” Church History 31 (1962): 46–65;CrossRefGoogle Scholarvon Geusau, L. G. M. Alting, Die Lehre bei Calvin von Kindertaufe: Gesehen im Rahmen seiner Sakraments-und Tauftheologie; Synthese oder Ordnungsfehler? (Mainz, 1963);Google Scholarand Raitt, Jill, “Three Inter-related Principles in Calvin's Unique Doctrine of Infant Baptism,” The Sixteenth Century Journal 11 (1980): 51–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

9. For a thorough discussion, including Continental and Anglo-American scholarship, see Gerrish, Brian A., “The Pathfinder: Calvin's Image of Martin Luther,” in The Old Protestantism and the New: Essays on the Reformation Heritage (Chicago, 1982), pp. 27–48.Google Scholar

10. See Balke, Willem, Calvin and the Anabaptists, trans. Heynen, William (Grand Rapids, Mich., 1981), p. 40;Google ScholarCourvoisier, Jacques, “Bucer et Calvin,” in Benoit, Jean-Daniel et al. , Calvin a Strasbourg, 1538–1541 (Strasbourg, 1938), p. 40;Google ScholarGanoczy, Alexandre, The Young Calvin, trans. Foxgrover, David and Provo, Wade (Philadelphia, 1987), pp. 137–181;Google ScholarGerrish, , “Pathfinder,” p. 31;Google ScholarLang, August, “Luther und Calvin,” in Reformation und Gegenwart: Gesammelte Aufsätze vornehmlich zur Geschichte und turn Verständnis Calvins und der reformierten Kirche, von August Long (Detmold, 1918), pp. 76–77;Google Scholaridem, “Die Quellen der Institutio von 1536,” Evangelische Theologie 3 (1936): 104–105;Google ScholarMeinhold, Peter, “Calvin und Luther,” Lutherische Monatshefte 3 (1964): 265;Google ScholarNauta, Doede, “Calvin and Luther,” Free University Quarterly 2 (1952–1953): 11;Google Scholarand Wendel, François, Calvin: sources et evolution de sa pensée religieuse (Paris, 1950), p. 96.Google Scholar

11. D. Martin Luthers Werke: Kritische Gesamtausgabe (Weimar, 1888), 6: 535. 8–11 [hereafter cited as WA with volume and page number];Google ScholarEnglish translation in Luther's Works, ed., Pelikan, Jaroslav and Lehmann, Helmut T. (St. Louis, 1955–), 36:39 [hereafter cited as LW with volume and page number]. Unless otherwise noted, all translations are the author's.Google Scholar

12. Grönvik, Lorenz, Die Taufe in der Theologie Martin Luthers (Göttingen, 1968), pp. 40–45, 102–131; see esp. pp. 102–106, 159, 165–166, and 239.Google ScholarAlso see Brinkel, Karl, Die Lehre Luthers von der Fides Infantium bei Kindertaufe (Berlin, 1958);Google Scholarand Althaus, , “Martin Luther,” pp. 705–714.Google Scholar

13. WA 26:154.1–155.28; LW40:239–241.Google Scholar

14. WA 26:159.25–161.34; LW40:246–248.Google Scholar

15. Ioannis Calvini opera selecta, eds. Barth, Peter, Niesel, Wilhelm, and Scheuner, Dora (Munich, 1926–1952), 1: 118; italics added [hereafter cited as OS with volume and page number].Google ScholarIn 1975 Ford Lewis Battles produced an excellent translation of the 1536 Institutes, along with annotations and four appendices, which was revised and republished in 1986 in recognition of the 450th anniversary of the 1536 Institutes.Google ScholarSee Calvin, John, Institutes of the Christian Religion, 1536 edition, trans, and annot. Ford Lewis Battles, (Grand Rapids, Mich., 1986).Google Scholar

16. OS 1:122. Compare Zwingli's De vera et falsa religione commentarius, in Huldreich Zwinglis sdmtliche Werke, ed. Egli, Emil, Finsler, George, et al. (Zurich, 1525);Google ScholarCorpus Reformatorum (Leipzig, 1914) 3: 758–759, 763.Google ScholarCalvin was perhaps influenced by Bucer; see Bornert, René, La Réforme protestante du culte a Strasbourg au XVI' siècle (1523–1598), Studies in Medieval and Reformation Thought 28, ed. Oberman, Heiko (Leiden, 1981).Google ScholarBornert argues that by 1536 Bucer thought of baptism as an entrance into the church and instruction by the church (pp. 342–343), as a time of receiving God's sign and then consecrating our faith (pp. 345–347), and as needing some form of confirmation so that those baptized as children could publicly attest to their faith (pp. 361–365). The question of whether Bucer influenced Calvin's baptismal thinking is further complicated because Bucer originally developed his thinking along Zwinglian lines;Google Scholarsee Usteri, , “Stellung,” pp. 456–463;Google Scholaralso see Bornert, , La Réforme, pp. 341, 356–357.Google Scholar

17. OS 1:122. For an extended discussion of these two aspects, see my study, “The Development of Calvin's Baptismal Theology, 1536–1560” (Ph.D. diss., University of Notre Dame, 1986), pp. 106–115;Google Scholaralso see the subsequent discussion by Gerrish, in Grace and Gratitude (Minneapolis, 1993), pp. 103–116.Google Scholar

18. OS 1:127.Google Scholar

19. OS 1:127, 135. Calvin devoted only 16 lines to this discussion, (OS 1:132), as compared to 206 lines in his discussion of the first aspect of baptism (OS 1:127–132).Google Scholar

20. Calvin, also described baptism as mortification and new life in Christ (OS 1:128–129), which was a regenerative washing (OS 1:129–130), as well as an engrafting into Christ himself in whom all three benefits (forgiveness, regeneration, engrafting) were found (OS 1:132). Calvin thus described God's inviolable sacramental activity as God's promise of forgiveness (OS 1:134), God's promise of mortification and regeneration (OS 1:131), and God's offer of Christ (OS 1:123–124, 119–120).Google Scholar

21. OS 1:134.Google Scholar

22. Battles, , Institutes, 1536 edition, pp. xvii–lix;Google ScholarGanoczy, , Young Calvin, pp. 225–238.Google Scholar

23. OS 1:123. See, for example, the extended discussion in the chapter on the sacraments (OS 1.122–124);Google Scholarand note Battles' comments in Institutes, 1536 edition, pp. xxii–xxv, li–liv.Google Scholar

24. Battles, , Institutes, 1536 edition, pp. xlv–lix. On Calvin's ecclesiology see Balke, Calvin, pp. 39–71, 97–122, 155–168, 209–211;Google ScholarBarth, Peter, “Calvins Verstandnis der Kirche,” Zwischen den Zeiten 8 (1930): 216–233;Google ScholarDoumergue, , Calvin, 5: 3–67;Google ScholarGanoczy, , Calvin theologien, pp. 183–222;Google ScholarHöpfl, , Polity;.Google ScholarMcNeill, J. T., “The Church in Sixteenth-Century Reformed Theology,” Journal of Religion 22 (1942): 251–269;CrossRefGoogle ScholarMueller, William, Church and State in Luther and Calvin: A Comparative Study (Nashville, Tenn., 1954), pp. 73–163;Google ScholarPetry, Ray C., “Calvin's Conception of the 'Communio Sanctorum',” Church History 5 (1936): 227–238;CrossRefGoogle ScholarQuistorp, Heinrich, “Sichtbare und unsichtbare Kirche bei Calvin,” Evangelische Theologie 9 (1949): 83–101;Google ScholarStrohl, H., “La notion d'Église chez les Réformateurs,” Revue d'histoire et de philosophie religieuses 16 (1936): 265–319, esp. 296–311;Google Scholarand Whale, , Protestant Tradition, pp. 145–162.Google Scholar

25. OS 1:31. See Balke, , Anabaptist, pp. 48–49;Google ScholarGanoczy, , Calvin théologien, pp. 184–185;Google ScholarHöpfl, , Polity, pp. 19–55;Google ScholarStrohl, , “La notion,” pp. 296–303;Google Scholarand Whale, , Tradition, pp. 146–151.Google ScholarNote the parallels that Ganoczy draws between Bucer, and Calvin, , Young Calvin, pp. 168–171.Google Scholar

26. Notice the unnamed reference to Cyprian in Calvin's discussion of the church (OS 1:92). Compare Cyprian, Epistle 72[73]. 21Google Scholarin The Ante-Nkene Fathers, ed. Roberts, Alexander and Donaldson, James (Edinburgh, 1885–; rept. Grand Rapids, Mich., 1990), 5:384.Google Scholar

27. OSRML1:91.Google Scholar

28. Compare with the strong wording in Luther's 1522 prayer book: “I believe that no one can be saved who is not in this community, peacefully holding with it the same faith, word, sacraments, and love…” (WA 10:394; LW 43:28).Google Scholar

29. See the discussion in 0S 1:88–91; also note Battles' comments in Institutes, 1536 edition, pp. 265–266.Google Scholar

30. Balke, , Calvin, pp. 73–96;Google ScholarGanoczy, , Young Calvin, pp. 106–131;Google ScholarParker, T. H. L., John Calvin: A Bibliography (Philadelphia, 1975), pp. 51–66;Google ScholarWalker, Williston, John Calvin: The Organizer of Reformed Protestantism 1509–1564 (New York, 1906), pp. 182–215.Google Scholar

31. Balke, , Calvin, pp. 123–153;Google ScholarParker, , John Calvin, pp. 67–81;Google ScholarWalker, , John Calvin, pp. 216–244.Google Scholar

32. See the recent studies by Burnett, Amy Nelson, “Church Discipline and Moral Reformation in the Thought of Martin Bucer,” Sixteenth Century Journal 22 (1991): 438–456;CrossRefGoogle ScholarGreschat, Martin, Martin Bucer: Ein Reformator und seine Zeit (München, 1990), pp. 127–138, 153–161;Google ScholarHammann, Gottfried, Entre la secte et la cite: le project d'église du reformateur Martin Bucer (Geneva, 1984), esp. pp. 43–68, 175–249, 258–262.Google ScholarAlso see Eells, Hasting, Martin Bucer (New Haven, 1931), pp. 127–165;Google ScholarWendel, Francois, L'Église de Strasbourg, sa constitution etson organization, 1532–1535 (Paris, 1942).Google Scholar

33. Friedmann, Robert, The Theology of Anabaptism (Scottdale, Pa., 1973), pp. 115–157;Google ScholarKlassen, William, Anabaptism in Outline (Scottdale, Pa., 1981), pp. 101–117;Google ScholarLittell, Franklin H., The Anabaptist View of the Church (Boston, 1958), pp. 79–108.Google Scholar

34. Calvin, John, Institutes of the Christian Religion, 1559 edition, 4.14.19 [hereafter cited as Inst. followed by book, chapter, and section]; OS 5.277.26–7.Google Scholar

35. During his stay in Strasbourg, Calvin continued his patristic readings, especially focusing on Chrysostom and Augustine. See Hughes Oliphant Old, The Patristic Roots Reformed Worship, Züricher Beiträge zur Reformationsgeschichte 5 (Zürich, 1975), pp. 144–155.Google ScholarThe quotations are found in Inst. 4.14.19, 05 5:277.31–278.2.Google Scholar

36. OS 1:125.Google Scholar

37. Inst. 4.14.19, OS 5:278.2–6.Google Scholar

38. The editors of the OS give a plausible explanation for the infant baptism supplement originally appearing in a separate French tract to defend the practice of infant baptism (OS 5:303.41, 304.16–30). This traicte then appeared, in altered form, both in the 1539 (Latin) Institutes and the 1541 (French) Institutes.Google Scholar

39. See OS 2:30.21–38.36 for a critical text of the Baptism Order. OS 2:1–10 gives an introduction and literary history for the critical text of “La Forme des Prieres et Chantz ecclesiastiques “ in which Calvin's baptismal order can be found.Google Scholar

40. OS 2:37.5–16.Google Scholar

41. Balke, , Cafom, pp. 169–208.Google Scholar

42. Inst. 4.1.2, OS 5:2.5–5.3.10.Google Scholar

43. See, for example, Inst. 4.1.4, OS 5:7.5–24. With regard to Calvin's emphasis on public ministry and church discipline,Google Scholarsee Balke, , Anabaptist, pp. 112–115;Google ScholarDoumergue, , Calvin, 5.29–37;Google ScholarGanoczy, , Calvin théologun, pp. 193–200;Google ScholarHöpfl, , Polity, pp. 56–90;Google ScholarQuistorp, , “Sichtbare,” pp. 86–92; and Whale, Tradition, pp. 152–3.Google Scholar

44. Höpfl, (Polity, pp. 84–85) pointedly says, “The first Institutes, it will be recalled, had been completed when Calvin was quite innocent of ecclesiastical experience or responsibility. A relative abstractness in matters of detail and practice was therefore only to be expected. What borders on the inexplicable is Calvin's obscurity in such matters in 1539. ' Surely “inexplicable” is too harsh a word for this point in Calvin's career.Google Scholar

45. Inst. 4.15.6, OS 5:89.14–20.Google Scholar

46. OS 1118.Google Scholar

47. Inst. 4.14.1, OS 5:259.2–10; italics added.Google Scholar

48. OS 1:127.Google Scholar

49. Inst. 4.15.1, OS 5:285.12–16.Google Scholar

50. Inst. 4.14.16, OS 5:273.26–274.1; italics added. Also see Calvin's 1540 commentary on Rom. 4:10–12 in which he argued that sacraments in themselves did nothing, nor were they useful to the reprobate; yet they still had power since unbelief does not extinguish God's truth;Google ScholarIoannis Calvini opera quae supersunt omnia, ed. Baum, Wilhelm, Cunitz, Edward, and Reuss, Edward; and Corpus Reformatorum (Brunswick, 1863–1900), 49: 74 [hereafter cited as CO with volume and page number].Google ScholarCompare the 1548 commentary on Gal. 5:3 where Calvin rhetorically conceded that “whatever the abuses of the ungodly might be, they nevertheless do not strip the sacred decrees of God ' ("qualiscunque sit impiorum abusus, id tamen sacrosanctis Dei institutis nihil detrahere,” CO 50:245).Google Scholar

51. “An promiscue in omnibus impletur haec gratia?—Multi dum illi sua pravitate viam praecludunt, efficiunt ut sibi sit inanis. Ita non nisi ad fideles solos pervenit fructus. Verum, inde nihil sacramenti naturae decedit.” (OS 2:134.21–4; no. 329; italics added).Google Scholar

52. Balke, , Anabaptist, pp. 155–160;Google ScholarDoumergue, , Calvin, 5:37–40;Google ScholarGanoczy, , Calvin theologien, pp. 202–211;Google ScholarHöpfl, , Polity, pp. 89–127;Google Scholarand Whale, , Tradition, 155–160.Google ScholarThe four-fold ministry is set forth in Inst. 4.3.1–16, OS 5:42.20–57.29, almost all of which is composed of the 1543 version.Google Scholar

53. Inst. 4.1.7,05 5:12.24–7.Google Scholar

54. On this passage see Krusche, WernerDas Wirken des Heiligen Geistes nach Calvin (Göttingen, 1957), pp. 311–316;Google Scholaralso see Bohatec, Josef, Calvins Lehre von Stoat und Kirche, (Breslau, 1937; rept. 1961), pp. 285–286;Google ScholarGanoczy, , Calvin theologien, pp. 202–206;Google ScholarNiesel, , Calvins, pp. 191–192;Google ScholarQuistorp, , “Kirche,” pp. 96–99.Google ScholarCompare Calvin's commentary on Rom. 9:6–7 (CO 49:175–17) and Rom. 9:8–11, 15–16 in CO 49:175–179, 181–183.Google Scholar

55. In 1546 Calvin commented on the visible church with regard to 1 Cor. 1:9, noting that “this is the purpose of the gospel, that Christ should become ours, and that we should be engrafted into his body.” See CO 49:313. With regard to the invisible church, see Inst. 3.22.7, OS 4.387–388; Inst. 3.24.5–10, OS 4.415–422.Google Scholar

56. “Le Baptesme est la marque de nostre Chrestienté, et le signe par lequel nous sommes receuz en la compagnie de'Église, afin qu'estans incorporez en Christ, nous soyons reputez du nombre des enfans de Dieu.” Institution de la Religion Chrestienne, ed. Benoit, Jean-Daniel (Paris, 1961), 2:318.Google Scholar

57. The expression “the mystical body of Christ” is translated from the original: “Haec est ecclesia catholica, corpus Christi mysticum ' (OS 1.92). Calvin's 1539 description of true believers is found in Inst. 3.22.7, OS 4.387–388; Inst. 3.24.5–10, OS 4.415–422.Google Scholar

58. Passages such as Inst. 3.22.7, 05 4.387–388, and Inst. 3.24.5–10, OS 4.415–422, remain relatively unchanged even through the 1559 Institutes. There Calvin moves the discussion of predestination out of the section on God's providence and into the section on the work of the Holy Spirit, a section that immediately precedes the discussion of the church.Google Scholar