1. Jarratt, Devereaux, The Life of the Reverend Devereaux Jarratt, Rector of Bath Parish, Dinwiddie County, Virginia (Baltimore, Md., 1806; reprint New York, 1969), pp. 49, 55–57, 70–75, 83–86, 94–99;Google ScholarHamilton, Kenneth Gardiner, John Ettwein and the Moravian Church during the Revolutionary Period (Bethlehem, Penn., 1940), pp. 262–267.Google Scholar For a marvelous upending of the traditional idea that American culture had been that of New England writ large, see Greene, Jack, Pursuits of Happiness: The Social Development of Early Modern British Colonies and the Formation of American Culture (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1988),Google Scholar who shows that United States culture was more like old English society had been.

2. The theology of these three groups has been summarized in Schmucker, Samuel Simon, Elements of Popular Theology, whose many editions include the one published in Baltimore, Md. in 1842;Google ScholarKnouth, Charles Porterfield, The Conservative Reformation and its Theology in the History and Literature of the Evangelical Lutheran Church (Philadelphia, 1899);Google ScholarFerm, Vergilius, The Crisis in American Lutheran Theology: A Study of the Issue between American Lutheranism and Old Lutheranism (Grand Rapids, Mich., 1927)Google Scholar; and Wentz, Abel Ross, A Basic History of the Lutheran Church in America (Philadelphia, 1933).Google Scholar

3. McBeth, H. Leon, The Baptist Heritage (Nashville, Tenn., 1987), pp. 147–149, 203, 211, 221;Google ScholarKeyser, C. Dirck, “The Virginia Separate Baptists and Arminianism,” The Virginia Baptist Register 23 (1984): 1110–1138.Google Scholar

4. Hanna, William H., Thomas Campbell: Seceder and Christian Union Advocate (Cincinnati, Ohio, 1935) is the most complete study; see especially pp. 24–25, 46–67, 80–98, 101–113, 127–128,Google Scholar giving Campbell's Scottish and Scots-Irish background. A fine series of general essays is Hughes, Richard T., ed., The American Quest for the Primitive Church (Urbana, II. 1988), especially, pp. 134–136.Google Scholar

5. Gillett, E. H., History of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America, 2 vols. (Philadelphia, 1864),Google Scholar vol. 2.

6. Gragg, Larry Dale, Migration in Early America: The Virginia Quaker Experience (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1980)Google Scholar is a highly statistical study, as is Lemon, James T., The Best Poor Man's Country: A Geographical Study of Early Southeastern Pennsylvania (Baltimore, Md., 1972)Google Scholar. Better on the recent rejuvenation of the religiously-oriented attack on slavery is McKivigan, John R., The War Against Proslavery Religion: Abolitionism and the Northern Churches (Ithaca, N.Y., 1984)Google Scholar. See also MacMaster, Richard K. et al. , eds., Conscience in Crisis: Mennonites and Other Peace Churches in America, 1739–1789: Interpretation and Documents (Scottsdale, Penn., 1979)Google Scholar.

7. Smith, Timothy L., Uncommon Schools: Christian Colleges and Social Idealism in Midwestern America, 1820–1950 (Indianapolis, lnd., 1978), pp. 24–30,Google Scholar makes this general point.

8. Welch, Edward Burgett, “Origins of Ohio Presbyterianism,” Journal of Presbyterian History 43 (1965): 16–27.Google Scholar

9. See Ahlstrom, Sydney E., A Religious History of the American People (New Haven, Conn., 1972), pp. 432–438, pp. 455–466.Google Scholar The myth was carried on in British views of the midwestern society, as in Schermerhorn, John F. and Mills, Samuel J., A Correct View of That Part of the United States Which is West of the Allegheny Mountains with Regard to Religion and Morals (Hartford, Conn., 1814)Google Scholar, emphasizing New School Presbyterians.

10. See chapter 8 by Laura Becker (pp. 196–221) on “Diversity and Its Significance in an Eighteenth-Century Pennsylvania Town”, namely Reading, Pennsylvania, in Marvin Zuckerman, ed., Friends and Neighbors: Group Life in America's First Plural Society. Dickinson, O. C. E., “The First Church Organization in the Oldest Settlement [Marietta] in the Northwestern Territory,” Ohio History 2 (1888): 291–293, 295, 298, 301.Google Scholar

11. Milburn, William Henry, The Pioneers, Preachers, and People of the Mississippi Valley (New York, 1860)Google Scholar seems grandiose as does Autobiography of Peter Cartwright, The Backwoods Preacher, ed. W. P.Strickland (Cincinnati, Ohio, 1856). But Milburn's brief discussion of the cordial relations between Baptists, Presbyterians, and Methodists at the Cane Ridge Kentucky camp meeting is based on his own participation. See also Francis Asbury: Journal and Letters, Elmer E. Clark, J. Manning Potts, and Jacob S. Payton, eds., 3 vols. (Nashville, Tenn., 1958) 2:257, 305.

12. Westerkamp, Marilyn J., Triumph of the Laity: Scots-Irish Piety and the Great Awakening, 1625–1760 (New York, 1988), pp. 69–75, 100–107, 130–135;Google Scholar and Landsman, Ned C., Scotland and Its First Amencan Colony, 1683–1765 (Princeton, N.J., 1985), pp. 51–65, 100–105, 132–135, 228–253.Google ScholarGewehr, Wesley C., The Great Awakening in Virginia, 1740–1790 (Durham, N.C., 1930; reprint, Gloucester, Mass., 1965), pp. 138–146, 167–186,Google Scholar sets Jarratt's account in interdenominational context, carrying the story of Presbyterian, Baptist, and Methodist evangelism into the years after the Revolutionary War. Because he wrote earliest perhaps, but also because Gewehr places Virginia events in their larger geographic and denominational setting, his work seems more substantial than that of Isaac, Rhys, The Transformation of Virginia, 1740–1790 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1982)Google Scholar.

13. Noll, Mark A., ed. The Princeton Theology, 1812–1921: Scripture, Science, and Theological Method from Archibald Alexander to Benjamin Breckinridge Warfield (Grand Rapids, Mich., 1983)Google Scholar, reemphasizes the long-standing view that Princeton Theological Seminary became far more conservative in its Calvinism than the College of New Jersey had ever been. See also Leotscher, Lefferts A, Facing the Enlightenment and Pietism: Archibald Alexander and the Founding of Princeton Theological Seminary (Westport, Conn., 1983)Google Scholar; and Armstrong, Maurice W., Loetscher, Lefferts A., and Anderson, Charles A., eds., The Presbyterian Entesprise: Sources of American Presbyterian History (Philadelphia, 1958).Google Scholar

14. Ahlstrom, , Religious History, pp. 431–439;Google ScholarBoles, John B., The Great Revival, 1787–1805: The Origin of the Southern Evangelical Mind (Lexington, Ky., 1972), pp. 159–163.Google Scholar

15. Christman, F. B., Origin and Doctrines of the Cumberland Presbyterian Church (Nashville, Tenn., 1875)Google Scholar. Westerhoff, John H., McGuffey and His Readers: Piety, Morality, and Education in Nineteenth-Century America (Nashville, Tenn., 1978), pp. 19–36,Google Scholar illustrates the way in which the son of a Scottish Covenanter's family, who completed his education at Washington College, wound up a professor at Ohio's Miami University, where he published the first edition of his famous readers.

16. Hanna, , Thomas Campbell pp. 64–98;Google ScholarCampbell, Alexander, The Christian System in Reference to the Union of Christians and a Restoration of Primitive Christianity as Pled in the Current Reformation (fourth ed., Cincinnati, Ohio, 1866; reprint, New York, 1969);Google ScholarHayden, A. S., History of the Disciples in the Western Reserve, Ohio (Cincinnati, Ohio, 1895)Google Scholar; and Lothick, Kenneth U., “The Western Reserve and the Frontier Thesis,” Ohio Historical Quarterly 70 (1961): 45–67.Google Scholar

17. Coffin, Levi, Reminiscence of Levi Coffin, the Reputed President of the Underground Railroad Second edition (Cincinnati, Ohio, 1880)Google Scholar; Gara, Larry, “The Underground Railroad: A Re-Evaluation,” Ohio Historical Quarterly 69 (1960): 219–230;Google ScholarGurney, Joseph John, A Journey in Northern America, Described in Familiar Letters to Amelia Opie (Norwich, England, 1841)Google Scholar; and Rawley, James A., “Joseph John Gurney's Mission to America, 1837–1840,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review 50 (1963)Google Scholar.

18. Woods, Richard F., “Evangelical Quakers in the Mississippi Valley, 1854–1894,” (Ph.D. diss., University of Minnesota, 1985)Google Scholar; “The Great Meeting of Friends in Chicago,” Herald of Peace (31 January, 1868); and Pumphrey, G. Stanley, Memoirs of Stanley Pumphrey (New York, 1883)Google Scholar.

19. Graham, A. A., “An Early Abolitionist Colony and Its Founder,” Ohio History 4 (Columbus, Ohio, 1895)Google Scholar. Miller, James M., The Genesis of Western Culture: The Upper Ohio Valley, 1800–1825 (Columbus, Ohio, 1938)Google Scholar is a masterful account throughout.

20. Adair, Douglass, “Autobiography of Jarratt,” William and Mary Quarterly, Third series, 9 (1952): 370;Google ScholarJarratt, Devereaux, Life, pp. 100–119;Google Scholar and Asbury, Francis, Journal and Letters 2:292 (21 04, 1801);Google ScholarMoser, F. T. and Magg, Howard T., eds., The Journal of Joseph Pilmore (Philadelphia, 1969), pp. 243–244Google Scholar containing Pilmore's sermon of 27 December, 1786, preached before the “Masons of Pennsylvania” for “the Relief of the Poor” (New York, 1793), pp. 12, 17,Google Scholar is filled with impeccable Wesleyan doctrine. Langford, Thomas E., Practical Divinity: Theology in the Wesleyan Tradition (Nashville, Tenn., 1983),Google Scholar emphasizes all these points, repeating them in chapter 4, “The Americanization of Wesleyan Theology,” pp. 78–85, and, in the section on modern holiness theology, pp. 131–146.

21. Ahlstrom, , Religious History of the American People, pp. 368–372, 444–445;Google ScholarCaswell, Henry, America and the American Church (New York, 1969), pp. 146–149, 189–190.Google Scholar

22. Carus, Wilbur, ed., Memorials of the Rt. Reverend Charles P. Mcllvaine, second ed., (London, 1882)Google Scholar. See also Lewis, Donald M., Lighten Their Darkness: The Evangelical Mission to Working-Class London, 1828–1860 (Westport, Conn., 1986)Google Scholar who emphasizes that the rise of Anglican cooperation with evangelicals began a decade earlier than historians usually say; Payne, Daniel Alexander, Recollections of Seventy Years (Nashville, Tenn., 1888, reprint New York, 1968) pp. 93–94, 102–108, 112–113, 121, 225–227.Google ScholarAhlstrom, , Religious History of the American People, pp. 328–329.Google ScholarMcllvaine, Charles Pettit, Bishop Mcllvaine on the Revival of Religion, (Philadelphia, 1858), pp. 4, 11, 22;Google Scholar and Manross, William W., A History of the American Episcopal Church, second ed. (New York, 1956).Google Scholar

23. Pritchard, Robert W., “Nineteenth-Century Episcopal Atritudes on Predestination and Election,” Historical Magazine of the Protestant Episcopal Church 51 (1982): 25–51.Google Scholar See also Wirtke, Carl F., Nast, William, Patriarch of German Methodism (Detroit, Mich., 1951).Google Scholar

24. O'Malley, J. Steven, Pilgrimage of Faith: The Legacy of the Otterbeins (Metuchen, N.J., 1973);Google ScholarAibright, Raymond W., A History of the Evangelical Church, (Harrisburg, 1956), pp. 49, 53–56,Google Scholar and on westward expansion, 126–166; Douglass, Paul F., The Story of German Methodism: Biography of an Immigrant Soul (New York, 1939)Google Scholar, especially the preface by John L. Mulder, pp. 11–12, 23–36; Core, Arthur C., Philip William Otterbein: Pastor and Ecumenicist (Dayton, Ohio, 1924)Google Scholar, which on page 297 and elsewhere reads like a Methodist history (he stresses that Otterbein's followers spoke German); Burkholder, Christian, Useful and Edifying Addresses to the Young on True Repentance, Saving Faith in Christ Jesus, Pure Love, etc. (Lancaster, Penn. 1857)Google Scholar, a book first written in 1792 and signed then by nearly all the ministers in County, Lancaster, Pennsylvania; Newcomer, Christian, ed., John Hildt: Life and Journal of the… Late Bishop of the Church of the United Brethren in Christ, from 1795 to 1830 (Hagerstown, Md., 1834)Google Scholar. In the 1960s and 1970s Ira D.Landis added valuable footnotes to Newcomer's chronicle and reproduced them serially in The Mennonite Research Journal, getting through at least half of the chapters by October, 1973. See also Herr, John, Complete Works, Comprising the Way to Heaven, The Illustrating Mirror, [and] an Appendix Relating to John Herr's Life (Buffalo, N.Y., 1890)Google Scholar.

25. Asbury, , Journal and Letters, 1:676–689 (1, 06 to 28 07, 1791), 1:723–729 (24 07 to 2 09 1792), 1:765–769 (22 07 to 1 09 1793)Google Scholar.

26. Strickland, W. P., ed., James B. Lindsay: Sketches of Western Methodism: Biographical, Historical, and Miscellaneous, Illustrative of Pioneer Life (Cincinnati, Ohio, 1954).Google Scholar

27. Payne, Daniel Alexander, Recollections of Seventy Years, pp. 133–134, 149–157.Google Scholar

28. Asbury's annotated Journal and Letters appeared in 1958. See also, Ahistrom, , Religious History, pp. 436–438.Google Scholar

29. Asbury, , Journal and Letters, vol. 2, 1794–1816Google Scholar, recounts his visits from New England to Georgia, and from Delaware to Western Kentucky. See also Baird, Henry M., The Life of the Rev. Robert Baird, D.D. (New York, 1867)Google Scholar recounting Baird's story. Educated at Washington College, near Wheeling, W. Virginia, then a missionary in Ohio, Baird began his career in rural Ohio and New Jersey before going, with Methodist blessing, to promote the Evangelical Alliance in Britain.

30. Asbury, , Journal and Letters, 2:433 (11 to [18] 06 1804), 2:438 (26 to 28 07, 1804)Google Scholar.

31. Asbury, , Journal and Letters, 2:479 (2 09, 1805), 2:554–556 (30 08. to 26 09., 1807), 2:576–577 (9 08. to 4 09., 1808)Google Scholar, shows Asbury's preaching and emphasis on sanctification at the height of his powers. Henry Boehim usually accompanied him to campmeetings in all sections, preaching sermons in German. Asbury's reading of Wesley's and Fletcher's sermons occupied some of his best days.

32. Strickland, W. P., ed., Autobiography of Peter Cartwright, The Backwoods Preacher (Cincinnati, Ohio, 1856) is the same, save in footnotes, as the Methodist Publishing House edition published at Nashville, Tenn. in 1956.Google Scholar

33. McLoughlin, William, “The Role of Religion in the Revolution: Liberty of Conscience and Cultural Cohesion in the New Nation,” in Kuntz, Stephen C. and Hutson, James, eds., Essays on the American Revolution (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1973), pp. 199–202, 208, 235;Google ScholarLoetscher, Lefferts A., “The Problem of Christian Unity in Early Nineteenth-Century America,” Church Hotory 32 (1962): 3–16;CrossRefGoogle Scholar and Keyser, , “Virginia Separate Baptists and Arminianism,” pp. 1110–1138.Google Scholar

34. Asbury, , Journal and Letters, 2:478n., 479 (25 08. to 2 09. 1805), 2:555 (3 09., 1807), 2:612–616 (24 09. and 3 08, 1809)Google Scholar.

35. Richard Sheils, “The Methodist Circuit Rider in the Second Great Awakening,” an unpublished paper presented at Asbury Theological Seminary, Wilmore, , Kentucky, , 06 1988, pp. 3–6, 9–13.Google Scholar

36. Ibid., pp. 15–16, 19–21. See also Jesse Lee's story, as told in Thrift, Minton, Memoir of the Rev. Jesse Lee, with Extracts from His Journals (New York, 1823), p. 112.Google Scholar

37. Caskey, Marie, Chariots of Fire: Religion and the Beecher Family (New Haven, Conn., 1978), pp. 32–67,Google Scholar makes plain the nature of Beecher's, Lyman middling way between Calvinism and Arminianism, a matter that Sidney Mead's Nathaniel W. Taylor, 1786–1850: A Connecticut Liberal (Hamden, Conn., 1967)Google Scholar leaves somewhat confused by his wish to make Taylor and, by inference, the whole group surrounding Timothy Dwight, followers of the “old Calvinist” rather than the newer Edwardian way of thinking. Though she seems too preoccupied with attributing a Calvinist lineage to Dwight and Beecher, Caskey makes crystal clear (pp. 33–43) Beecher's aim to balance the ideas of activity and dependence, to recover the notion that God's creatures are moral agents, and to insist that however sinful people were, they could nevertheless avail themselves of God's mercies. See also Pearson, Samuel C., “From Church to Denomination: American Congregationalism in the Nineteenth Century,” Church History 38 (1969): 67–87;CrossRefGoogle ScholarBreitenbach, William, “The Consistent Calvinism of the New Divinity Movement,” William and Mary Quarterly, third series, 51 (1954);Google Scholar and anon., “an Inquiry into the True Way of Preaching on Ability,” The Christian Spectator 7 (1835): 223–257.Google Scholar

38. Herein lies precisely my argument with Hatch, Nathan, The Democratization of American Christianity (New Haven, Conn., 1989)Google Scholar. Hatch holds on to much of the New England myth while celebrating those American clergy who rejected it, without realizing that most of their rejections were based on English, Scottish, and Irish as well as Dutch and German epistemologies, especially Pietist ones. The “democratization” that they led was deeply steeped in Baptist, Methodist, and Presbyterian thought, as well as in Pietist notions developed in the preceding two centuries. See also Bergnan, Marvin L, “Millennialism Among Virginia Revivalists,” Fides et Historia 18 (1986): 56–72,Google Scholar who has found that, contrary to Nathan Hatch's insistence on the primacy of millennialism among the New England revivalists, those from Virginia such as Samuel Davies, John Leland, Devereaux Jarratt, Francis Asbury, and Samuel S. Smith, were not motivated or even very much interested in the theme. Compare Asbury, Journal and Letters 2:352–353 (12 to 22 07, 1802), 2:391–393 (27 05, 1803)Google Scholar; and Ahlstrom, , Religious History, pp. 479–481.Google Scholar

39. Frantz, John, “The Awakening of Religion Among the German Settlers in the Middle Colonies,” William and Mary Quarterly 33 (1976): 266–288;CrossRefGoogle ScholarDurnbaugh, Donald F., ed. The Church of the Brethren, Past and Present (Elgin Il., 1971), p. 21Google Scholar explains how Arminian and denominationally loose the early “Brethren” were, showing that entire congregations in Indiana and Missouri went over to the Disciples of Christ. See also Leedy, Roy B., The Evangelical Church in Ohio: Being a History of the Ohio Conference and Merged Conferences, 1816–1951 (n.p., [Ohio?], 1959)Google Scholar; and Durnbaugh, Donald F., “Relationship of the Brethren with the Mennonites and Quakers,” Church History 35 (1966): 35–43, 51–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

40. Schiabach, Theron F., “Mennonites and Pietism in America, 1790–1880: Some thoughts on the Freedman Thesis,” Mennonite Quarterly Review 57 (1983): 233;Google Scholar and the same author's “Mennonites, Revivalism, Modernity,” Church History 48 (1979): 401–404, 408–409, 411.Google Scholar Compare with Lehman, James O., Crosswinds: From Switzerland to Crown Hill (Rittman, Ohio, 1975);Google ScholarSchiaback, Ervin, The Amish and Mennonites at Walnut Creek (Ohio) (Millersburg, Ohio, 1981)Google Scholar, based on Old Order Amish records; and Staltzfus, Grant M., Mennonites of the Ohio and Eastern Conferences: From the Colonial Perzod in Pennsylvania to 1968 (Scottsdale, Penn., 1969)Google Scholar.

41. Hough, Samuel S., ed., Christian Newcomer, His Life, Journal and Achievements (Dayton, Ohio, 1941)Google Scholar has numerous references to Francis Asbury's relation to the United Brethren, epecially for 1809, when Asbury was cultivating increasing union with them. Also see Asbury, , Journal and Letters, 2:245Google Scholar n, 386 n, 400 n, 593 n, 610 n and Ahlstrom, , Religious History, pp. 438–441.Google Scholar

42. Wentz, Abdel Ross, A Basic History of Lutheranism in America (Philadelphia, 1955).Google Scholar

43. Kurtz, Henry, The Brethren's Encyclopedia: Containing the United Counsels and Conclusions of the Brethren at their Annual Meetings. (n.p., Ohio, 1867);Google ScholarDurnbaugh, Donald F., “Henry Kurtz: Man of the Book,” Ohio History 67 (1896): 114–131, 173–176;Google ScholarSappington, Roger E., ed., The Brethren in the New Nation: A Source Book on the Development of the Church of the Brethren, 1785 to 1865 (Elgin, II.).Google Scholar

44. Nead, Peter, Theological Writings on Various Subjects, or A Vindication of Pnmitive Christianity, as recorded in the Word of God in Three Parts (Dayton, Ohio, 1850);Google ScholarKurt, Henry, and Quinter, James, eds., The Gospel-Visitor: A Monthly Publication Devoted to the Exhibition and Defense of Gospel Principles (Columbus, Ohio, 1859), vol. 9.;Google ScholarMinutes of the Annual Meetings of the Brethren Designed for the Promotion of the Peace and Harmony of the Brotherhood. Published by the Authority of the Annual Meeting (Dayton, Ohio, 1876), 26–2705, 1874.Google Scholar

45. Ronk, Albert T., History of the Brethren Church (Ashland, Ohio, 1968), pp. 87–90, 92, 102–106, 125–167.Google Scholar

46. Rawlyck, George A., ed., The Sermons of Heniy Alline (Hantsport, N.S., 1986), pp. 20–25.Google Scholar

47. McBeth, , The Baptist Heritage, pp. 206–207, 211, 216, 219;Google ScholarSweet, William Warren, Religion on the American Frontier, vol. 4, The Baptists, 1783–1830: A Collection of Source Material (New York, 1931), ch. 4, esp. pp. 67–76Google Scholar for the anti-mission association of Rev. Daniel Parker.

48. Newman, Albert Henry, A History of the Baptist Churches in the United States, sixth ed. (New York, 1915).Google Scholar

49. Cox, F. A. and Hoby, J., The Baptists in America: A Narrative of the Deputation from the Baptist Union in England, to the United States and Canada (New York, 1836)Google Scholar is a useful account of this “progressive” urban heritage.

50. See Sweet, , The Baptists, pp. 67–76Google Scholar and Newman, Albert H., A Century of Baptist Achievement (Philadelphia, 1901), pp. 89–97.Google Scholar

51. Meagher, Timothy J., ed., Urban Ameruan Catholicum: The Culture and Identity of the American Catholic People (New York, 1988).Google ScholarStout, Harry S., “Ethnicity: The Vital Center of Religion in America,” Ethnicity 3 (1975): 204–224,Google Scholar compliments me by relying on my work, but interprets my Revivalism and Social Reform on the Eve of the Civil War (New York, 1957; reprint, New York, 1963)Google Scholar in terms that sound less like mine than those of Martin Marty and Will Herberg, who I think are mistaken.

52. Meyer, Michael A., Response to Modernity: A History of the Reform Movement in Judaism (New York, 1988);Google ScholarAhlstrom, , Religious History, pp. 578–582.Google Scholar

53. Raphael, Marc Lee, Jews and Judaism in a Midwestern Community: Columbus Ohio, 1840–1975 (Columbus, Ohio, 1979).Google Scholar

54. Meyer, Response to Modernity; Ahlstrom, , Religions History, pp. 573–578.Google Scholar