Hostname: page-component-7c8c6479df-7qhmt Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-03-19T02:43:09.928Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

What's New? Rethinking Ethnogenesis in the Archaeology of Colonialism

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Barbara L. Voss*
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305-2034 (bvoss@stanford.edu)

Abstract

Many archaeological researchers studying colonialism are critiquing theories of cultural change (e.g., hybridity, creolization) in favor of interpretive models that emphasize cultural persistence and continuity. Ethnogenesis, the emergence of new cultural identities, has been put forward as a consensus model: what is “new“—the “genesis“ in ethnogenesis—is increasingly interpreted as an authentic remaking of communal identities to foster persistence and survival. This somewhat utopic emphasis on continuity in ethnogenesis theory broadens the concept of ethnogenesis to the point that its value as a theory of identity transformation is being lost. Overall, the archaeological emphasis on ethnogenesis as a tactic of resistance among subaltern communities has led to a general neglect of how ethnic identity practices are deployed in the exercise of power. The increasing use of bioarchaeological evidence in ethnogenesis research also raises pressing ethical and epistemological issues about the relationship between the body and identity. A more focused and restricted application of ethnogenesis theory is necessary to identify and investigate those situations in which colonialism and its consequences resulted in ruptures and structural transformations of identity practices.

Résumé

Résumé

Muchos de los investigadores en arqueología que estudian temas como el colonialismo, critican las teorías de cambio cultural (p. ej. hibridez y creolización) a favor de modelos interpretativos que enfatizan la persistencia y la continuidad cultural. La etnogenesis, o la emergéncia de nuevas identidades, se ha propuesto como un modelo de consenso: lo que es “nuevo“—la “génesis” en etnogénesis—se interpreta cada vez más como una auténtica reinvención de las identidades comunales, para fomentar su persistencia y supervivencia. El énfasis de la etnogénesis en la continuidad es un tanto utopico, y ha ampliado el concepto de la etnogenesis a tal punto que pierde valor como teoría sobre la transformación de la identidad. En general, el énfasis de la arqueología en la etnogénesis como una tdctica de resistencia en comunidades subalternas, ignora como se utiliza la identidad étnica en el ejercicio del poder. El creciente uso de evidencia bioarqueológica en las investigaciones sobre etno génesis, ha generado cuestionamientos éticos y epistemologicos acerca de la relación entre cuerpo e identidad. Es necesario utilizar la teoria de la etnogénesis de forma más enfocada y restringida para identificar e investigar aquellas situaciones en las que el colonialismo y sus consecuencias ocasionaron rupturas y transformaciones estructurales en las prácticas identitarias.

Type
Articles
Copyright
Copyright © The Society for American Archaeology 2015

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References Cited

Abelove, Henry 1989 Some Speculations on the History of Sexual Intercourse during the Long Eighteenth Century in England. Genders 6:125130.Google Scholar
Aguiar, Luis L. M., and Schneider, Christopher J. (editors) 2012 Researching amongst Elites: Challenges and Opportunities in Studying Up. Ashgate Publishing, Surrey, England.Google Scholar
Anderson, Benedict 1993 Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism. Verson, New York.Google Scholar
Arogundade, Ben 2013 Vanessa Williams’ Genetic DNA Testing and Ancestry Research: Two Ethnicities and Nine Nationalities Found. Electronic document, http://www.arogundade.com/celebrity-genetic-testing-vanessa-williams-dna-ancestry.html, accessed December 5, 2014.Google Scholar
Atalay, Sonya 2006 No Sense of the Struggle: Creating a Context for Survivance at the NMAI. American Indian Quarterly 30:597618.Google Scholar
Baram, Uzi 2012 Cosmopolitan Meanings of Old Spanish Fields: Historical Archaeology of a Maroon Community in Southwest Florida. Historical Archaeology 46(1): 108122.Google Scholar
Barna, Benjamin Thomas 2013 Ethnogenesis of the Hawaiian Ranching Community: An Historical Archaeology of Tradition, Transnationalism, and Pili. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Nevada, Reno.Google Scholar
Barth, Fredrik (editor) 1969 Ethnic Groups and Boundaries: The Social Organization of Cultural Difference. G. Allen and Unwin, London.Google Scholar
Barth, Fredrik (editor) 1994 Enduring and Emerging Issues in the Analaysis of Ethnicity. In The Anthropology of Ethnicity: Beyond “Ethnic Groups and Boundaries,” edited by Hans Vermeulen and Cora Govers.pp. 1132. Het Spinhuis, Amsterdam.Google Scholar
Bawden, Garth 2005 Ethnogenesis at Galindo, Peru. In Us and Them: Archaeology and Ethnicity in the Andes, edited by Richard Martin Reycraft, pp. 1233. Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Los Angeles.Google Scholar
Bell, Alison 2005 White Ethnogenesis and Gradual Capitalism: Perspectives from Colonial Archaeological Sites in the Chesapeake. American Anthropologist 107:446460.Google Scholar
Bowlus, Charles R. 2002 Ethnogenesis: The Tyranny of a Concept. In On Barbarian Identity: Critical Approaches to Ethnicity in the Early Middle Ages, edited by Andrew Gillett, pp. 241256. Prepols Publishers, Turnhout, Belgium.Google Scholar
Brather, Sebastian 2002 Ethnic Identities as Constructions of Archaeology: The Case of the Alamanni . In On Barbarian Identity: Critical Approaches to Ethnicity in the Early Middle Ages, edited by Andrew Gillett, pp. 149175. Prepols Publishers, Turnhout, Belgium.Google Scholar
Brather, Sebastian 2005 Acculturation and Ethnogenesis along the Frontier: Rome and the Ancient Germans in an Archaeological Perspective. In Borders, Barriers, and Ethnogenesis: Frontiers in Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, edited by Florin Curta, pp. 139171. Brepols Publishers, Turnhout, Belgium.Google Scholar
Brooks, James F. 2002 Captives and Cousins: Slavery, Kinship, and Community in the Southwest Borderlands. University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill.Google Scholar
Card, Jeb J. 2013a Italianate Pipil Potters: Mesoamerican Transformation of Renaissance Material Culture in Early Spanish Colonial San Salvador. In The Archaeology of Hybrid Material Culture, edited by Jeb J. Card, pp. 100130. Occasional Paper No. 39. Center for Archaeological Investigations, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale.Google Scholar
Card, Jeb J. 2013b Introduction. In The Archaeology of Hybrid Material Culture, edited by Jeb J. Card, pp. 121. Occasional Paper No. 39. Center for Archaeological Investigations, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale.Google Scholar
Childe, V. Gordon 1926 The Aryans: A Study of Indo-European Origins. Kegan Paul, London.Google Scholar
Cipolla, Craig N. 2012 Peopling the Place, Placing the People: An Archaeology of Brothertown Discourse. Ethnohistory 59:5178.Google Scholar
Cipolla, Craig N. 2013a Becoming Brothertown: Native American Ethnogenesis and Endurance in the Modern World. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Cipolla, Craig N. 2013b Resituating Homeland: Motion, Movement, and Ethnogenesis at Brothertown. In Archaeologies of Mobility and Movement, edited by Mary C. Beaudry and Travis G. Parno, pp. 117132. Springer Press, New York.Google Scholar
Clifford, James 2004 Looking Several Ways: Anthropology and Native Heritage in Alaska. Current Anthropology 45:530.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Comaroff, John L. 1987 Of Totemism and Ethnicity: Consciousness, Practice and the Signs of Inequality. Ethnos: Journal of Anthropology 52:301323.Google Scholar
Comaroff, John L. 1996 Ethnicity, Nationalism, and the Politics of Difference in an Age of Revolution. In The Politics of Difference: Ethnic Differences in a World of Power, edited by Edwin N. Wilmsen and Patrick McAllister, pp. 162183. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
Comaroff, John L., and Comaroff, Jean 2009 Ethnicity, Inc. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Curta, Florin 2002 From Kossinna to Bromley: Ethnogenesis in Slavic Archaeology. In On Barbarian Identity: Critical Approaches to Ethnicity in the Early Middle Ages, edited by Andrew Gillett, pp. 201218. Prepols Publishers, Turnhout, Belgium.Google Scholar
Curta, Florin 2005 Borders, Barriers, and Ethnogenesis: Frontiers in Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages. Brepols Publishers, Turnhout, Belgium.Google Scholar
Daehnke, Jon D. 2007 A “Strange Multiplicity” of Voices: Heritage Stewardship, Contested Sites and Colonial Legacies on the Columbia River. Journal of Social Archaeology 7:250275.Google Scholar
Deagan, Kathleen A. 1983 Spanish St. Augustine: The Archaeology of a Colonial Creole Community. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Deagan, Kathleen A. 1990 Accommodation and Resistance: The Process and Impact of Spanish Colonization in the Southeast. In Archaeological and Historical Perspectives on the Spanish Borderlands East, edited by David Hurst Thomas, pp. 297314. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Deagan, Kathleen A. 1998 Transculturation and Spanish American Ethnogenesis: The Archaeological Legacy of the Quincentenary. In Studies in Culture Contact: Interaction, Culture Change, and Archaeology, edited by James Gregory Cusick, pp. 2343. Southern Illinois University, Carbondale.Google Scholar
Delle, James A., Hauser, Mark W., and Armstrong, Douglas V. (editors) 2011 Out of Many, One People: The Historical Archaeology of Colonial Jamaica. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.Google Scholar
Denbow, James 2012 Pride, Prejudice, Plunder, and Preservastion: Archaeology and the Re-envisioning of Ethnogenesis on the Loango Coast of the Republic of Congo. Antiquity 86:383408.Google Scholar
Derks, Ton, and Roymans, Nico (editors) 2009 Ethnic Constructs in Antiquity: The Role of Power and Tradition. Amsterdam University Press, Amsterdam.Google Scholar
Diaz-Andreu, Marguerita, Lucy, Sam, Babiç, Stasa, and Edwards, David N. (editors) 2005 The Archaeology of Identity: Approaches to Gender, Age, Status, Ethnicity, and Religion. Routledge, London.Google Scholar
Enloe, Cynthia 1980 Ethnic Soldiers: State Security in a Divided Society. Penguin Books, Harmondsworth.Google Scholar
Erdosy, George 1995 The Prelude to Urbanization: Ethnicity and the Rise of Late Vedic Chiefdoms. In The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States, edited by F. R. Allchin, pp. 7598. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Fehr, Hubert 2002 Volkstum as Paradigm: Germanic People and Gallo-Romans in Early Medieval Archaeology since the 1930s. In On Barbarian Identity: Critical Approaches to Ethnicity in the Early Middle Ages, edited by Andrew Gillett, pp. 177200. Prepols Publishers, Turnhout, Belgium.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fennell, Christopher C. 2007 Crossroads and Cosmologies: Diasporas and Ethnogenesis in the New World. University Press of Florida, Gainesville.Google Scholar
Ferris, Neal 2011 The Archaeology of Native-Lived Colonialism: Challenging History in the Great Lakes. Univerity of Arizona Press, Phoenix.Google Scholar
Field, Les, Leventhal, Alan, Sanchez, Dolores, and Cambra, Rosemary 1992 A Contemporary Ohlone Tribal Revitalization Movement: A Perspective from the Muwekma Costanoan/Ohlone Indians of the San Francisco Bay Area. California History 71:412132.Google Scholar
Gibble, Patricia 2014 Transculturation and Ethnogenesis: Material Culture from an Eighteenth-Century Pennsylvania German Farmstead/Distillery. In Historical Archaeology of the Delaware Valley, 1600–1850, edited by Richard Veit and David Orr. pp. 125150. University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville.Google Scholar
Gillett, Andrew 2002a Was Ethnicity Politicized in the Earliest Medieval Kingdoms? In On Barbarian Identity: Critical Approaches to Ethnicity in the Early Middle Ages, edited by Andrew Gillett, pp. 85121. Prepols Publishers, Turnhout, Belgium.Google Scholar
Gillett, Andrew 2002b Introduction: Ethnicity, History, and Methodology. In On Barbarian Identity: Critical Approaches to Ethnicity in the Early Middle Ages, edited by Andrew Gillett, pp. 118. Prepols Publishers, Turnhout, Belgium.Google Scholar
Hall, Stuart 1989 New Ethnicities. In Black Film, British Cinema, edited by Kobena Mercer, pp. 2731. ICA Documents 7, Institute of Contemporary Arts, London.Google Scholar
Härke, Heinrich 2011 Anglo-Saxon Immigration and Ethnogenesis. Medieval Archaeology 55:128.Google Scholar
Hill, Jonathan D. (editor) 1996a History, Power, and Identity: Ethnogenesis in the Americas, 1492–1992. University of Iowa Press, Iowa City.Google Scholar
Hill, Jonathan D. (editor) 1996b Introduction: Ethnogenesis in the Americas, 1492–1992. In History, Power, and Identity: Ethnogenesis in the Americas, 1492–1992, edited by Jonathan D. Hill, pp. 119. University of Iowa Press, Iowa City.Google Scholar
Hill, Jonathan D. (editor) 2013 Long-Term Patterns of Ethnogenesis in Indigenous Amazonia. In The Archaeology of Hybrid Material Culture, edited by Jeb J. Card, pp. 165206. Occasional Paper No. 39. Center for Archaeological Investigations, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale.Google Scholar
Hobsbawm, Eric, and Ranger, Terence (editors) 1983 The Invention of Tradition. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Hornborg, Alf 2005 Ethnogenesis, Regional Integration, and Ecology in Prehistoric Amazonia: Toward a System Perspective. Current Anthropology 46:589620.Google Scholar
Hu, Di 2013 Approaches to the Archaeology of Ethnogenesis: Past and Emergent Perspectives. Journal of Archaeological Research 21:371402.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hughes, Daniel 2012 A Case of Multiple Identities in La Florida: A Statistical Approach to Nascent Cosmopolitanism. Historical Archaeology 47(1): 827.Google Scholar
Hull, Kathleen L. 2009 Pestilence and Persistence: Yosemite Indian Demography and Culture in Colonial California. University of California Press, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Insoll, Timothy (editor) 2007 The Archaeology of Identities. Routledge, New York.Google Scholar
Jones, Sian 1997 The Archaeology of Ethnicity: Constructing Identities in the Past and Present. Routledge, London.Google Scholar
Klaus, Haagen D. 2013 Hybrid Cultures … and Hybrid Peoples: Bioarchaeology of Genetic Change, Religious Architecture, and Burial Ritual in the Colonial Andes. In The Archaeology of Hybrid Material Culture, edited by Jeb J. Card, pp. 207238. Occasional Paper No. 39. Center for Archaeological Investigations, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale.Google Scholar
Klaus, Haagen D., and Tam Chang, Manuel E. 2009 Surviving Contact: Biological Transformation, Burial, and Ethnogenesis in the Colonial Lambayeque Valley, North Coast of Peru. In Bioarchaeology and Identity in the Americas, edited by Kelly J. Knudson and Christopher M. Stojanowski, pp. 126152. University Press of Florida, Gainesville.Google Scholar
Kraus-Friedberg, Chana 2008 Transnational Identity and Mortuary Material Culture: The Chinese Plantation Cemetery in Pahala, Hawai’i. Historical Archaeology 42(3): 123135.Google Scholar
Kurin, Danielle Shawn 2012 The Bioarchaeology of Collapse: Ethnogenesis and Ethnocide in Post-Imperial Andahuaylas, Peru (AD 900–1200). Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee.Google Scholar
Kurin, Danielle Shawn 2014 Cranial Trauma and Cranial Modification in Post-Imperial Andahuaylas, Peru. In Bioarchaeological and Forensic Perspectives on Violence: How Violent Death Is Interpreted from Skeletal REmains, edited by Debra L. Martin and Cheryl P. Anderson, pp. 236260. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Leventhal, Alan, Field, Les, Alvarez, Hank, and Cambra, Rosemary 1994 The Ohlone Back from Extinction. In The Ohlone Past and Present: Native Americans of the San Francisco Bay Region, edited by Lowell John Bean, pp. 297336. Ballena Press, Menlo Park, California.Google Scholar
Liebmann, Matthew 2013 Parsing Hybridity: Archaeologies of Amalgamation in Seventeenth-Century New Mexico. In The Archaeology of Hybrid Material Culture, edited by Jeb J. Card, pp. 2549. Occasional Paper No. 39. Center for Archaeological Investigations, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale.Google Scholar
Lightfoot, Kent G. 2005 Indians, Missionaries, and Merchants: The Legacy of Colonial Encounters on the California Frontiers. University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles.Google Scholar
Little, Barbara J. 1994 People with History: An Update on Historical Archaeology in the United States. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 1:540.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McGuire, Randall H. 1982 The Study of Ethnicity in Historical Archaeology. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 1:159178.Google Scholar
Matthews, Christopher, Leone, Mark P., and Jordan, Kurt A. 2002 The Political Economy of Archaeological Cultures: Marxism and American Historical Archaeology. Journal of Social Archaeology 2:109134.Google Scholar
Medina, Vincent 2014 Being Ohlone in the 21st Century. Elecronic document, http://ohlone.tumblr.com/, accessed August 29, 2014.Google Scholar
Meskell, Lynn 2002 The Intersections of Identity and Politics in Archaeology. Annual Review of Anthropology 31:279301.Google Scholar
Moore, J. H. 2004 Cultural Evolution: Ethnogenesis. In International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences (Online Edition via Science Direct), edited by Neil J. Smelser and Paul B. Baltes, pp. 30453049. Elsevier Ltd./Pergemon. Electronic document, http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080430767030989, accessed October 19, 2005.Google Scholar
Murray, Alexander Callander 2002 Reinhard Wenskus on “Ethnogenesis,” Ethnicity, and the Origin of the Franks. In On Barbarian Identity: Critical Approaches to Ethnicity in the Early Middle Ages, edited by Andrew Gillett, pp. 3968. Prepols Publishers, Turnhout, Belgium.Google Scholar
Nader, Laura 1972 Up the Anthropologist–Perspectives Gained from Studying Up. In Reinventing Anthropology, edited by Dell H. Hymes, pp. 284311. Pantheon Books, New York.Google Scholar
Nagel, Joane 2000 Ethnicity and Sexuality. Annual Review of Sociology 26:107133.Google Scholar
Nassaney, Michael S. 1989 An Epistemological Enquiry into Some Archaeological and Historical Interpretations of 17th Century Native American-European Relations. In Archaeological Approaches to Cultural Identity, edited by Stephen J. Shennan, pp. 7693. One World Archaeology 10. Unwin Hyman, London.Google Scholar
Nystrom, Kenneth C. 2009 The Reconstruction of Identity: A Case Study from Chachapoya, Peru. In Bioarchaeology and Identity in the Americas, edited by Kelly J. Knudson and C. Stojanowski, pp. 82102. University Press of Florida, Gainesville.Google Scholar
Oland, Maxine, Hart, Siobhan M., and Frink, Liam (editors) 2012 Decolonizing Indigenous Histories: Exploring Prehistoric/Colonial Transitions in Archaeology. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Ortman, Scott 2010 Genes, Language, and Culture in Tewa Ethnogenesis, A.D. 1150–1400. Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Arizona State University, Tempe.Google Scholar
Ortman, Scott 2011 Winds from the North: Tewa Origins and Historical Anthropology. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Ortner, Sherry B. 2006 Anthropology and Social Theory: Culture, Power, and the Acting Subject. Duke University Press, Durham, North Carolina.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Panich, Lee M. 2010 Missionization and the Persistence of Native Identity on the Colonial Frontier of Baja California. Ethnohistory 57:225262.Google Scholar
Panich, Lee M. 2013 Archaeologies of Persistence: Reconsidering the Legacies of Colonialism in Native North America. American Antiquity 78:105122.Google Scholar
Peelo, Sarah Ginn 2009 Creating Community in Spanish California: An Investigation of California Plainwares. Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of California at Santa Cruz.Google Scholar
Pohl, Walter 2002 Ethnicity, Theory, and Tradition: A Response. In On Barbarian Identity: Critical Approaches to Ethnicity in the Early Middle Ages, edited by Andrew Gillett, pp. 221239. Prepols Publishers, Turnhout, Belgium.Google Scholar
Restall, Matthew 2004 Maya Ethnogenesis. Journal of Latin Amercian Anthropology 9:6489.Google Scholar
Reycraft, Richard Martin 2005 Style Change and Ethnogenesis among the Chiribaya of Far South Coastal Peru. In Us and Them: Archaeology and Ethnicity in the Andes, edited by Richard Martin Reycraft, pp. 5472. Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Los Angeles.Google Scholar
Rodríguez-Alegría, Enrique 2008 Narratives of Conquest, Colonialism, and Cutting-Edge Technology. American Anthropologist 110:3343.Google Scholar
Saunders, Rebecca 2012 Deep Surface: Pottery and Identity in the Mission Period. Historical Archaeology 46(1):97107.Google Scholar
Scaramelli, Franz, and de Scaramelli, Kay Tarble 2005 The Roles of Material Culture in the Colonization of the Orinoco, Venezuela. Journal of Social Archaeology 5:135168.Google Scholar
Scaramelli, Franz, and de Scaramelli, Kay Tarble 2014 Uncommon Commodities: Articulating the Global and the Local on the Orinoco Frontier. In Archaeology of Culture Contact and Colonialism in Spanish and Portuguese America, edited by Pedro Paolo A. Funari and Maria Ximena Senatore, pp. 167191. Springer, New York.Google Scholar
Scheiber, Laura L., and Mitchell, Mark D. (editors) 2010 Across a Great Divide: Continuity and Change in Native North American Societies, 1400–1900. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Scott, James C. 1985 Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance. Yale University Press, New Haven, Connecticut.Google Scholar
Scott, James C. 1999 Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed. Yale University Press, New Haven, Connecticut.Google Scholar
Seymour, Deni J. (editor) 2012 From the Land of Ever Winter to the American Southwest: Athapaskan Migrations, Mobility, and Ethnogenesis: An Introduction. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Silliman, Stephen W. 2005 Culture Contact or Colonialism? Challenges in the Archaeology of Native North America. American Antiquity 70:5574.Google Scholar
Silliman, Stephen W. 2009 Change and Continuity, Practice, and Memory: Native American Persistence in Colonial New England. American Antiquity 74:211230.Google Scholar
Silliman, Stephen W. 2012 Between the Longue Durée and the Short Purée: Postcolonal Archaeologies of Indigenous History in Colonial North America. In Decolonizing Indigenous Histories: Exploring Prehistoric/Colonial Transitions in Archaeology, edited by Maxine Oland, Siobhan M. Hart and Liam Frink, pp. 113131. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Silliman, Stephen W. 2013 What, Where, and When Is Hybridity? In The Archaeology of Hybrid Material Culture, edited by Jeb J. Card, pp. 486500. Occasional Paper No. 39. Center for Archaeological Investigations, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale.Google Scholar
Singer, Lester 1962 Ethnogenesis and Negro Americans Today. Social Research 29:419432.Google Scholar
Stark, Miriam T. (editor) 1998 The Archaeology of Social Boundaries. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Stojanowski, Christopher M. 2005 The Bioarchaeology of Identity in Spanish Colonial Florida: Social and Evolutionary Transformation before, during, and after Demographic Collapse. American Anthropologist 107:417431.Google Scholar
Stojanowski, Christopher M. 2009 Bridging Histories: The Bioarchaeology of Identity in Postcontact Florida. In Bioarchaeology and Identity in the Americas, edited by Kelly J. Knudson and C. Stojanowski, pp. 5981. University Press of Florida, Gainesville.Google Scholar
Stojanowski, Christopher M. 2010 Bioarchaeology of Ethnogenesis in the Colonial Southeast. University Press of Florida, Gainesville.Google Scholar
Sturtevant, William C. 1971 Creek into Seminole. In North American Indians in Historical Perspective, edited by Eleanor Burke Leacock and Nancy Oestreich Lurie, pp. 92128. Random House, New York.Google Scholar
Sutter, Richard C. 2009 Post-Tiwanaku Ethnogenesis in the Coastal Moquegua Valley, Peru. In Bioarchaeology and Identity in the Americas, edited by Kelly J. Knudson and Christopher M. Stojanowski, pp. 103125. University Press of Florida, Gainesville.Google Scholar
Symanski, Luís Cláudio P., and Gomes, Denise Maria Cavalcante 2014 Material Culture, Mestizage, and Social Segmentation in Santarém, Northern Brazil. In Archaeology of Culture Contact and Colonialism in Spanish and Portuguese America, edited by Pedro Paolo A. Funari and Maria Ximena Senatore, pp. 212229. Springer, New York.Google Scholar
Tarble de Scaramelli, Kay, and Scaramelli, Franz 2011 Generic Pots and Generic Indians: The Archaeology of Ethnogenesis in the Middle Orinoco. In Ethnicity in Ancient Amazonia: Reconstructing Past Identities from Archaeology, Linguistics, and Ethnohistory, edited by Alf Hornborg and Jonathan D. Hill, pp. 99127. University Press of Colorado, Boulder.Google Scholar
THIRTEEN Productions LLC 2014 Finding Your Roots with Henry Louis Gates, Jr. Electronic document, http://www.pbs.org/wnet/finding-your-roots/episodes/, accessed December 5, 2014.Google Scholar
van der Spek, R. J. 2009 Multi-ethnicity and Ethnic Segregation in Hellenistic Babylon. In Ethnic Constructs in Antiquity: The Role of Power and Tradition, edited by Ton Derks and Nico Roymans, pp. 101115. Amsterdam University Press, Amsterdam.Google Scholar
Verdery, Katherine 1994 Ethnicity, Nationalism, and State-Making–Ethnic Groups and Boundaries: Past and Future. In The Anthropology of Ethnicity: Beyond “Ethnic Groups and Boundaries” edited by Hans Vermeulen and Cora Go vers, pp. 3358. Het Spinhuis, Amsterdam.Google Scholar
Vermeulen, Hans, and Govers, Cora (editors) 1994 The Anthropology of Ethnicity: Beyond “Ethnic Groups and Boundaries” Het Spinhuis, Amsterdam.Google Scholar
Voss, Barbara L. 2005 From Casta to Californio: Social Identity and the Archaeology of Culture Contact. American Anthropologist 107:461474.Google Scholar
Voss, Barbara L. 2008a The Archaeology of Ethnogenesis: Race and Sexuality in Colonial San Francisco. University of California Press, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Voss, Barbara L. 2008b Poor People in Silk Shirts: Dress and Ethnogenesis in Spanish-Colonial San Francisco. Journal of Social Archaeology 8:404432.Google Scholar
Voss, Barbara L. 2015 The Archaeology of Ethnogenesis: Race and Sexuality in Colonial San Francisco, Revised Edition. University Press of Florida, Gainesville.Google Scholar
Voss, Barbara L., and Casella, Eleanor C. (editors) 2012 The Archaeology of Colonialism: Intimate Encounters and Sexual Effects. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Weik, Terrance M. 2009 The Role of Ethnogenesis and Organziation in the Development of African-Native American Settlements: An African Seminole Model. International Journal of Historical Archaeology 13:206238.Google Scholar
Weik, Terrance M. 2012 The Archaeology of Anti-slavery Resistance. University of Florida Press, Gainesville.Google Scholar
Weik, Terrance M. 2014 The Archaeology of Ethnogenesis. Annual Review of Anthropology 43:291305.Google Scholar
Weisman, Brent R. 2007 Nativism, Resistance, and Ethnogenesis of the Florida Seminole Indian Identity. Historical Archaeology 41(4): 198212.Google Scholar
Weismantel, Mary 2004 Moche Sex Pots: Reproduction and Temporality in Ancient South America. American Anthropologist 106:495505.Google Scholar
Whittaker, Dick 2009 Ethnic Discourses on the Frontiers of Roman Africa. In Ethnic Constructs in Antiquity: The Role of Power and Tradition, edited by Ton Derks and Nico Roymans, pp. 189205. Amsterdam University Press, Amsterdam.Google Scholar
Wilcox, Michael V. 2009 The Pueblo Revolt and the Mythology of Conquest: An Indigenous Archaeology of Contact. University of California Press, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Wilcox, Michael V. 2010a Marketing Conquest and the Vanishing Indian: An Indigenous Response to Jared Diamond’s Guns, Germs, and Steel and Collaspe. Journal of Social Archaeology 10:93117.Google Scholar
Wilcox, Michael V. 2010b Saving Indigenous Peoples from Ourselves: Separate but Equal Archaeology is not Scientific Archaeology. American Antiquity 75:221228.Google Scholar
Wolf, Eric R. 1982 Europe and the People without History. University of California Press, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Zimmerman, Larry J., and Strong Move, Dawn Makes 2008 Archaeological Taxonomy, Native Americans, and Scientific Landscapes of Clearance: A Case Study from Northeastern Iowa. In Landscapes of Clearance: Archaeological and Anthropological Perspectives, edited by Angéle Smith and Amy Gazin-Schwartz, pp. 190211. Left Coast Press, Walnut Creek, California.Google Scholar