Hostname: page-component-77c89778f8-gq7q9 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-16T18:00:15.415Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Isotopic Confirmation of the Timing and Intensity of Maize Consumption in Greater Cahokia

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  22 April 2020

Thomas E. Emerson Open the ORCID record for Thomas E. Emerson [Opens in a new window] ,
Kristin M. Hedman ,
Mary L. Simon ,
Mathew A. Fort  and
Kelsey E. Witt
Thomas E. Emerson*
Affiliation:
Illinois State Archaeological Survey, 209 Nuclear Physics Laboratory, 23 Stadium Drive University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL61820, USA
Kristin M. Hedman
Affiliation:
Illinois State Archaeological Survey, 209 Nuclear Physics Laboratory, 23 Stadium Drive University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL61820, USA
Mary L. Simon
Affiliation:
Illinois State Archaeological Survey, 209 Nuclear Physics Laboratory, 23 Stadium Drive University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL61820, USA
Mathew A. Fort
Affiliation:
Illinois State Archaeological Survey, 209 Nuclear Physics Laboratory, 23 Stadium Drive University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL61820, USA
Kelsey E. Witt
Affiliation:
Molecular and Cell Biology Department, University of California, Merced, CA95343, USA
*
(teee@illinois.edu, corresponding author)
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The history of maize (Zea mays L.) in the eastern Woodlands remains an important study topic. As currently understood, these histories appear to vary regionally and include scenarios positing an early introduction and an increase in use over hundreds of, if not a thousand, years. In this article, we address the history of maize in the American Bottom region of Illinois and its importance in the development of regional Mississippian societies, specifically in the Cahokian polity located in the central Mississippi River valley. We present new lines of evidence that confirm subsistence-level maize use at Cahokia was introduced rather abruptly at about AD 900 and increased rapidly over the following centuries. Directly dated archaeobotanical maize remains, human and dog skeletal carbon isotope values, and a revised interpretation of the archaeological record support this interpretation. Our results suggest that population increases and the nucleation associated with Cahokia were facilitated by the newly introduced practices of maize cultivation and consumption. Maize should be recognized as having had a key role in providing subsistence security that—combined with social, political, and religious changes—fueled the emergence of Cahokia in AD 1050.

La historia del maíz (Zea mays L.) en los Bosques Orientales (Eastern Woodlands) sigue siendo un tema de estudio importante. Como se entiende actualmente, estas historias parecen variar regionalmente e incluyen escenarios que proponen una introducción temprana y un aumento en su uso a lo largo de cientos, sino mil, años. En este artículo, abordamos la historia del maíz en la región del Bajo Americano de Illinois y su importancia en el desarrollo de las sociedades regionales Mississippianas, específicamente en la comunidad de Cahokia ubicada en el valle central del río Mississippi. Presentamos nuevas líneas de evidencia que confirman que el uso del maíz a nivel de subsistencia en Cahokia se inició de manera bastante abrupta en aproximadamente 900 dC y aumentó rápidamente durante los siglos siguientes. Restos arqueológicos de maíz fechados directamente, valores isotópicos de carbono de restos óseos humanos y caninos, y una interpretación revisada del registro arqueológico respaldan esta interpretación. Nuestros resultados sugieren que el aumento de la población y la nucleación asociada con Cahokia fueron facilitados por las prácticas de cultivo y consumo de maíz recientemente introducidas. Se debe de reconocer que el maíz tuvo un papel clave en la provisión de seguridad de subsistencia que, combinado con cambios sociales, políticos y religiosos, impulsó el surgimiento de Cahokia en el año 1050 dC.

Keywords

Cahokiaearly maizedietary stable isotopesnixtamalizationCahokiahistoria del maizisotópicos de carbononixtamalización
Type
Articles
Information
American Antiquity , Volume 85 , Issue 2 , April 2020 , pp. 241 - 262
Copyright
Copyright © 2020 by the Society for American Archaeology

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References Cited

Adair, Mary J., and Drass, Richard R. 2011 Patterns of Plant Use in the Prehistoric Central and Southern Plains. In The Subsistence Economies of Indigenous North American Societies, edited by Smith, Bruce D., pp. 307–352. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Adams, Karen 1994 A Regional Synthesis of Zea mays in the Prehistoric American Southwest. In Corn and Culture in the Prehistoric New World, edited by Johannessen, Sissel and Hastorf, Christine A., pp. 273–302. Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado.Google Scholar
Albert, Roberta K., Kooiman, Susan M., Clark, Caitlin A., and Lovis, William A. 2018 Earliest Microbotanical Evidence for Maize in the Northern Lake Michigan Basin. American Antiquity 83:345–355.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allitt, Sharon, Michael Stewart, R., and Messner, Timothy 2008 The Utility of Dog Bone (Canis Familiaris) in Stable Isotope Studies for Investigating the Presence of Prehistoric Maize (Zea Mays ssp. mays): A Preliminary Study. North American Archaeologist 29:334–367.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alt, Susan M. 2018 Cahokia's Complexities: Ceremonies and Politics of the First Mississippian Farmers. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.Google Scholar
Alt, Susan M. (editor) 2010 Ancient Complexities: New Perspectives in Precolumbian North America. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Ambrose, Stanley H. 1993 Isotopic Analysis of Paleodiets: Methodological and Interpretive Considerations. In Investigations of Ancient Human Tissue, edited by Sandford, Mary K., pp. 59–130. Gordon and Breach Science, Langhorne, Pennsylvania.Google Scholar
Ambrose, Stanley H., Buikstra, Jane E., and Krueger, Harold W. 2003 Gender and Status Differences in Diet at Mound 72, Cahokia, Revealed by Isotopic Analysis of Bone. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 22:217–226.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ambrose, Stanley H., Butler, Brian M., Hanson, Douglas B., Hunter-Anderson, Rosalind L., and Krueger, Harold W. 1997 Stable Isotopic Analysis of Human Diet in the Marianas Archipelago, Western Pacific. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 104:343–361.3.0.CO;2-W>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ambrose, Stanley H., and Norr, Lynette 1993 Experimental Evidence for the Relationship of the Carbon Isotope Ratios of Whole Diet and Dietary Protein to Those of Bone Collagen and Carbonate. In Molecular Archaeology of Prehistoric Human Bone, edited by Lambert, Joseph and Grupe, Gisela, pp. 1–37. Springer, Berlin.Google Scholar
Bareis, Charles J., and Porter, James W. (editors) 1984 American Bottom Archaeology: A Summary of the FAI-270 Project Contribution to the Culture History of the Mississippi River Valley. University of Illinois Press, Urbana.Google Scholar
Benchley, Elizabeth D. 2003 Mississippian Alkali Processing of Corn. Wisconsin Archeologist 84:127–137.Google Scholar
Bender, Margaret M., Baerreis, David A., and Steventon, Raymond L. 1981 Further Light on Carbon Isotopes and Hopewell Agriculture. American Antiquity 46:346–353.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bird, Broxton W., Wilson, Jeremy J., Gilhooly, William P. III, Steinman, Byron A., and Stamps, Lucas 2017 Midcontinental Native American Population Dynamics and Late Holocene Hydroclimate Extremes. Nature Scientific Reports 7(41628). DOI:10.1038/srep41628.Google ScholarPubMed
Blake, Michael 2006 Dating the Initial Spread of Zea mays. In Histories of Maize: Multidisciplinary Approaches to the Prehistory, Linguistics, Biogeography, Domestication, and Evolution of Maize, edited by Staller, John E., Tykot, Robert H., and Benz, Bruce F., pp. 55–71. Academic Press, Burlington, Massachusetts.Google Scholar
Brennan, Tamira K., Betzenhauser, Alleen, Landsdell, Michael Brent, Plocher, Luke A., Potter, Vitoria E., and Blodgett, Daniel F. 2018 Community Organization of the East St. Louis Precinct. In Revealing Greater Cahokia, North America's First Native City: Rediscovery and Large-Scale Excavations of the East St. Louis Precinct, edited by Emerson, Thomas E., Koldehoff, Brad H., and Brennan, Tamira K., pp. 147–202. Illinois State Archaeological Survey Studies in Archaeology No. 12. University of Illinois, Champaign.Google Scholar
Briggs, Rachel V. 2015 The Hominy Foodway of the Historic Native Eastern Woodlands. Native South 8:112–146.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bronk Ramsey, Christopher 2017 OxCal Program, Version 4.3. Oxford University, Oxford, UK. http://c14.arch.ox.ac.uk.Google Scholar
Brown, James A., and Kelly, John E. 2000 Cahokia and the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex. In Mounds, Modoc, and Mesoamerica: Papers in Honor of Melvin L. Fowler, edited by Ahler, Steven R., pp. 469–510. Illinois State Museum Scientific Papers Vol. XXVIII. Illinois State Museum, Springfield.Google Scholar
Buikstra, Jane E., and Milner, George R. 1991 Isotopic and Archaeological Interpretations of Diet in the Central Mississippi Valley. Journal of Archaeological Science 18:319–329.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buikstra, Jane E., Rose, Jerome C., and Milner, George R. 1994 A Carbon Isotopic Perspective on Dietary Variation in Late Prehistoric Western Illinois. In Agricultural Origins and Development in the Midcontinent, edited by Green, William, pp. 155–170. University of Iowa Office of the State Archaeologist, Iowa City.Google Scholar
Burleigh, Richard, and Brothwell, Don 1978 Studies on Amerindian Dogs 1: Carbon Isotopes in Relation to Maize in the Diet of Domestic Dogs from Early Peru and Ecuador. Journal of Archaeological Science 5:355–362.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carbaugh, Aimee E., Hargrave, Eve, Headley, Amanda, Fort, Mathhew, and Hedman, Kristin M. 2018 Human Remains Analysis Results and Interpretation. In The Broglio Site: A Late Middle Archaic Habitation and Mortuary Site in the Big Muddy Watershed, edited by Lansdell, M. Brent, pp. 45–78. Research Report No. 49. Illinois State Archaeological Survey,Champaign.Google Scholar
Chapman, Jefferson, and Crites, Gary D. 1987 Evidence for Early Maize (Zea mays) from the Icehouse Bottom Site, Tennessee. American Antiquity 52:352–354.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chappuis, Eglantine, Seriñá, Vanesa, Martí, Eugènia, Ballesteros, Enric, Gacia, Esperança 2017 Decrypting Stable-Isotope (δ13C and δ15N) Variability in Aquatic Plants. Freshwater Biology 62:1807–1818.Google Scholar
Childe, V. Gordon 1936 Man Makes Himself. Watts and Company, London.Google Scholar
Chilton, Elizabeth 2006 The Origin and Spread of Maize (Zea mays) in New England. In Histories of Maize: Multidisciplinary Approaches to the Prehistory, Linguistics, Biogeography, Domestication, and Evolution of Maize, edited by Staller, John E., Tykott, Robert H., and Benz, Bruce F., pp. 539–547. Academic Press, Burlington, Massachusetts.Google Scholar
Cook, Robert A., and Price, T. Douglas 2015 Maize, Mounds, and the Movement of People: Isotope Analysis of a Mississippian/Fort Ancient Region. Journal of Archaeological Science 61:112–128.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crawford, Gary W., Saunders, Della, and Smith, David G. 2006 Pre-Contact Maize from Ontario, Canada: Context, Chronology, Variation, and Plant Association. In Histories of Maize: Multidisciplinary Approaches to the Prehistory, Biogeography, Domestication, and Evolution of Maize, edited by Staller, John E., Tykot, Robert H., and Benz, Bruce F., pp. 549–559. Academic Press, Burlington, Massachusetts.Google Scholar
Crawford, Gary W., Smith, David G., and Bowyer, Vandy E. 1997 Dating the Entry of Corn (Zea mays) into the Lower Great Lakes Region. American Antiquity 62:112–119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crown, Patricia L., Emerson, Thomas E., Gu, Jiyan, Jeffrey Hurst, W., Pauketat, Timothy R., and Ward, Timothy 2012 Ritual Black Drink Consumption at Cahokia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States 109:13944–13949.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Daniels, Stephanie L. and McElrath, Dale L. 2010 A Reexamination of the Middle Woodland Chert Disks from Neteler Mound. Illinois Archaeology 22:747–759.Google Scholar
DeNiro, Michael J., and Epstein, Samuel 1978 Influence of Diet on the Distribution of Carbon Isotopes in Animals. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 42:495–506.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DeNiro, Michael J., and Epstein, Samuel 1981 Influence of Diet on the Distribution of Nitrogen Isotopes in Animals. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 45:341–351.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duncan, James R., and Diaz-Granados, Carol 2004 Empowering the SCC: The “Old Woman” and Oral Tradition. In The Rock-Art of Eastern North America: Capturing Images and Insight, edited by Diaz-Granados, Carol and Duncan, James R., pp. 190–218. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.Google Scholar
Edwards, Richard W. IV, Jeske, Robert J., and Coltrain, Joan Brenner 2017 Preliminary Evidence for the Efficacy of the Canine Surrogacy Approach in the Great Lakes. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 13:516–525.Google Scholar
Emerson, Thomas E. 1982 Mississippian Stone Images in Illinois. Circular No. 6. Illinois State Archaeological Survey, Urbana.Google Scholar
Emerson, Thomas E. 1989 Water, Serpents, and the Underworld: An Exploration into Cahokian Symbolism. In The Southern Ceremonial Complex: Artifacts and Analysis: The Cottonlandia Conference, edited by Galloway, Patricia, pp. 45–92. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.Google Scholar
Emerson, Thomas E. 1997 Cahokia and the Archaeology of Power. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.Google Scholar
Emerson, Thomas E. 2015 The Earth Goddess Cult at Cahokia. In Medieval Mississippians, edited by Pauketat, Timothy R. and Alt, Susan, pp. 54–61. School for Advanced Research Press, Santa Fe, New Mexico.Google Scholar
Emerson, Thomas E. 2018 Greater Cahokia—Chiefdom, State, or City? Urbanism in the North American Midcontinent, AD 1050–1250. In Revealing Greater Cahokia, North America's First Native City: Rediscovery and Large-Scale Excavations of the East St. Louis Precinct, edited by Emerson, Thomas E., Koldehoff, Brad H., and Brennan, Tamira K., pp. 487–535. Illinois State Archaeological Survey Studies in Archaeology No. 12. University of Illinois, Champaign.Google Scholar
Emerson, Thomas E., Alt, Susan M., and Pauketat, Timothy R. 2008 Locating American Indian Religion at Cahokia and Beyond. In Religion, Archaeology, and the Material World, edited by Fogelin, Lars, pp. 216–236. Center for Archaeological Investigations Occasional Paper No. 36. Southern Illinois University, Carbondale.Google Scholar
Emerson, Thomas E., and Hargrave, Eve A. 2000 Strangers in Paradise: Recognizing Ethnic Mortuary Diversity on the Fringes of Cahokia. Southeastern Archaeology 19:1–23.Google Scholar
Emerson, Thomas E., Hargrave, Eve, and Hedman, Kristin M. 2003 Death and Ritual in Early Rural Cahokia. In Theory, Method, and Technique in Modern Archaeology, edited by Jeske, Robert J. and Charles, Douglas K., pp. 163–181. Bergin and Garvey, Westport, Connecticut.Google Scholar
Emerson, Thomas E., and Hedman, Kristin M. 2016 The Dangers of Diversity: The Consolidation and Dissolution of Cahokia, Native North America's First Urban Polity. In Beyond Collapse: Archaeological Perspectives on Resilience, Revitalization, and Transformation in Complex Societies, edited by Faulseit, Ronald K., pp. 147–175. Center for Archaeological Investigations Occasional Paper No. 42. Southern Illinois University Press, Carbondale.Google Scholar
Farnsworth, Kenneth B., and Wiant, Michael D. 2006 Illinois Hopewell and Late Woodland Mounds: The Excavations of Gregory Perino 1950–1975. Illinois Transportation Archaeological Research Program Studies in Archaeology No. 4. University of Illinois, Champaign.Google Scholar
Fort, Matthew A., Hedman, Kristin M., and Ambrose, Stanley H. 2016 Stable Isotope Analysis of Diet in a Sample of Human and Mammal Bone. In The Tree Row Site: A Late Archaic Habitation and Mortuary Site in the Central Illinois Valley, edited by McElrath, Dale L. and Evans, Madeleine G., pp. 215–221. Illinois State Archaeological Survey Research Report 38. University of Illinois, Champaign.Google Scholar
Fortier, Andrew C. 1992a Interpretation. In The Sponemann Site 2: The Mississippian and Oneota Occupations, edited by Jackson, Douglas K., Fortier, Andrew C., and Williams, Joyce A., pp. 339–348. American Bottom Archaeology, FAI 270 Site Reports Vol. 23. University of Illinois Press, Urbana.Google Scholar
Fortier, Andrew C. 1992b Stone Figurines. In The Sponemann Site 2: The Mississippian and Oneota Occupations, edited by Jackson, Douglas K., Fortier, Andrew C., and Williams, Joyce A., pp. 277–303. American Bottom Archaeology, FAI 270 Site Reports Vol. 23. University of Illinois Press, Urbana.Google Scholar
Fortier, Andrew C. 2015 Late Woodland Communities in the American Bottom: The Fish Lake Site. Illinois State Archaeological Survey Research Report 28. University of Illinois, Champaign.Google Scholar
Fortier, Andrew C., Emerson, Thomas E., and McElrath, Dale L. 2006 Calibrating and Reassessing American Bottom Culture History. Southeastern Archaeology 25:168–209.Google Scholar
Fortier, Andrew C., and Jackson, Douglas K. 2000 The Formation of a Late Woodland Heartland in the American Bottom, Illinois. In Late Woodland Societies: Tradition and Transformation across the Midcontinent, edited by Emerson, Thomas E., McElrath, Dale L., and Fortier, Andrew C., pp. 123–147. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.Google Scholar
Fortier, Andrew C., and McElrath, Dale L. 2002 Deconstructing the Emergent Mississippian Concept: The Case for the Terminal Late Woodland in the American Bottom. Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology 27:171–215.Google Scholar
Fritz, Gayle J. 2011 The Role of “Tropical” Crops in Early North American Agriculture. In Economies of Indigenous North American Societies: A Handbook, edited by Smith, Bruce D., pp. 503–516. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Fritz, Gayle J. 2019 Feeding Cahokia: Early Agriculture in the North American Heartland. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.Google Scholar
Fritz, Gayle J., and Lopinot, Neal H. 2007 Native Crops at Early Cahokia: Comparing Domestic and Ceremonial Contexts. In People, Plants, and Animals: Archaeological Studies of Human-Environment Interaction in the Midcontinent: Essays in Honor of Leonard W. Blake, edited by Warren, Robert E., Illinois Archaeology 15–16:90–111.Google Scholar
Galloy, Joseph M. 2010 Janey B. Goode Site (11S1232): Highlights of Investigations at a Massive Late Prehistoric Site in the American Bottom. Illinois Archaeology 22:529–552.Google Scholar
Greenlee, Diana M. 2006 Dietary Variation and Prehistoric Maize Farming in the Middle Ohio Valley. In Histories of Maize: Multidisciplinary Approaches to the Prehistory, Linguistics, Biogeography, Domestication, and Evolution of Maize, edited by Staller, John E., Tykott, Robert H., and Benz, Bruce F., pp. 215–233. Academic Press, Burlington, Massachusetts.Google Scholar
Griffin, James B. 1960 Climatic Change: A Contributory Cause of the Growth and Decline of Northern Hopewellian Culture. Wisconsin Archeologist 41(2):21–33.Google Scholar
Griffin, James B. 1967 Eastern North American Archaeology: A Summary. Science 156(3772):175–191.10.1126/science.156.3772.175CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Guiry, Eric J. 2012 Dogs as Analogs in Stable Isotope-Based Human Paleodietary Reconstructions: A Review and Considerations for Future Use. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 19:351–376.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guiry, Eric J. 2013 A Canine Surrogacy Approach to Human Paleodietary Bone Chemistry: Past Development and Future Direction. Archaeological and Anthropological Science 5:275–286.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harrison, Roman G., and Katzenberg, M. Anne 2003 Paleodiet Studies Using Stable Carbon Isotopes from Bone Apatite and Collagen: Examples from Southern Ontario and San Nicolas Island, California. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 22:227–244.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hart, John P. 2014 A Critical Assessment of Current Approaches to Investigations of the Timing, Rate, and Adoption Trajectories of Domesticates in the Midwest and Great Lakes. In Reassessing the Timing, Rate, and Adoption Trajectories of Domesticate Use in the Midwest and Great Lakes, edited by Raviele, Maria E. and Lovis, William A., pp. 161–174. Occasional Paper No. 1. Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology, Champaign, Illinois.Google Scholar
Hart, John P., and Lovis, William A. 2007 A Multi-Regional Analysis of AMS and Radiometric Dates from Carbonized Food Residues. Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology 32:201–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hart, John P., and Lovis, William A. 2013 Reevaluating What We Know about the Histories of Maize in Northeastern North America: A Review of Current Evidence. Journal of Archaeological Research 21:175–216.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hart, John P., and Lovis, William A. 2014 A Re-Evaluation of the Reliability of AMS Dates on Pottery Food Residues from the Late Prehistoric Central Plains of North America: Comment on Roper (2013). Radiocarbon 56. DOI:10.2458/56.16898.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hart, John P., Lovis, William A., Jeske, Robert J., and Richards, John D. 2012 The Potential of Bulk δ13C on Encrusted Cooking Residues as Independent Evidence for Regional Maize Histories. American Antiquity 77:315–325.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hedman, Kristin M., Hargrave, Eve A., and Ambrose, Stanley H. 2002 Late Mississippian Diet in the American Bottom: Stable Isotope Analyses of Bone Collagen and Apatite. Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology 27:237–271.Google Scholar
Hedman, Kristin M., Hargrave, Eve A., West, Jolee A. 2016 Tree Row Skeletal Remains. In The Tree Row Site: A Late Archaic Habitation and Mortuary Site in the Central Illinois Valley, edited by McElrath, Dale L. and Evans, Madeleine G., pp. 115–178. Illinois State Archaeological Survey Research Report 38. University of Illinois, Champaign.Google Scholar
Hedman, Kristin M., Slater, Philip A., Fort, Matthew A., Emerson, Thomas E., Lambert, John M. 2018 Expanding the Strontium Isoscape for the American Midcontinent: Identifying Potential Places of Origins for Cahokia and Pre-Columbian Migrants. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 22:202–213.Google Scholar
Hill, Jane M. 2010 The Historical Linguistics of Maize Cultivation in Mesoamerica and North America. In Histories of Maize in Mesoamerica: Multidisciplinary Approaches to the Prehistory, Linguistics, Biogeography, Domestication, and Evolution of Maize, edited by Staller, John E., Tykot, Robert H. and Benz, Bruce F., pp. 235–249. Left Coast Press, Walnut Creek, California.Google Scholar
Howard, James H. 1968 The Southern Ceremonial Complex and Its Interpretations. Memoir 6. Missouri Archaeological Society, Columbia.Google Scholar
Huckell, Lisa W. 2006 Ancient Maize in the American Southwest: What Does It Look Like and What Can It Tell Us? In Histories of Maize: Multidisciplinary Approaches to the Prehistory, Linguistics, Biogeography, and Evolution of Maize, edited by Staller, John E., Tykott, Robert H. and Benz, Bruce F., pp. 97–108. Academic Press, Burlington, Massachusetts.Google Scholar
Hudson, Charles 1976 The Southeastern Indians. University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville.Google Scholar
Jacobs, S. W. L. 2001 Review of Leaf Anatomy and Ultrastructure in the Chenopoiaceae (Caryopyllales). Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society 128:236–253.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jeske, Robert J., Foley, Kathleen M., Winkler, Daniel M., Edwards, Richard W. 2010 Human Skeletal Remains and Material Culture Recovered from the Jaco Site (47JE1192) in Jefferson County, Wisconsin. Report submitted by the University of Wisconsin – Milwaukee to the Wisconsin Historical Society, Madison.Google Scholar
Johannessen, Sissel 1984 Paleoethnobotany. In American Bottom Archaeology: A Summary of the FAI-270 Project Contribution to the Culture History of the Mississippi River Valley, edited by Bareis, Charles J. and Porter, James W., pp. 197–214. University of Illinois Press, Urbana.Google Scholar
Katz, Solomon H., Hediger, Mary L., and Valleroy, Linda A. 1974 Traditional Maize Processing Techniques in the New World. Science 184(4138):765–773.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Katzenberg, M. Anne 2006 Prehistoric Maize in Southern Ontario Contributions from Stable Isotope Studies. In Histories of Maize, Multidisciplinary Approaches to the Prehistory, Linguistics, Biogeography, Domestication, and Evolution of Maize, edited by Staller, John E., Tykot, Robert H., and Benz, Bruce F., pp. 263–273. Academic Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.Google Scholar
Kelly, John E. 1980 Formative Developments at Cahokia and the Adjacent American Bottom: A Merrell Tract Perspective. PhD dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Wisconsin, Madison.Google Scholar
Kelly, John E. 1990 Range Site Community Patterns and the Mississippian Emergence. In The Mississippian Emergence, edited by Smith, Bruce D., pp. 67–112. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Kelly, John E. 1992 The Impact of Maize on the Development of Nucleated Settlements: An American Bottom Example. In Late Prehistoric Agriculture: Observations from the Midwest, edited by Woods, William I., pp. 167–197. Studies in Illinois Archaeology No. 8. Illinois Historic Preservation Agency, Springfield.Google Scholar
Kelly, John E. 2000 The Nature and Context of Emergent Mississippian Cultural Dynamics in the Greater American Bottom. In Late Woodland Societies: Tradition and Transformation across the Midcontinent, edited by Emerson, Thomas E., McElrath, Dale L., and Fortier, Andrew C., pp. 163–175. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.Google Scholar
Kelly, John E., Ozuk, Steven J., Jackson, Douglas K., McElrath, Dale L., Finney, Fred A., and Esarey, Duane 1984 Emergent Mississippian. In American Bottom Archaeology: A Summary of the FAI-270 Project Contribution to the Culture History of the Mississippi River Valley, edited by Bareis, Charles J. and Porter, James W., pp. 128–157. University of Illinois Press, Urbana.Google Scholar
Koldehoff, Brad, and Galloy, Joseph M. 2006 Late Woodland Frontiers in the American Bottom. Southeastern Archaeology 25:272–297.Google Scholar
Kuehn, Steven R. 2014 Prehistoric Dog Pathology in the American Bottom: Evidence from the Janey B. Goode Site (11S1232), St. Clair County, Illinois. Illinois Archaeology 26:97–129.Google Scholar
Lee-Thorp, Julia A. 2002 Two Decades of Progress Towards Understanding Fossilization Process and Isotopic Signals in Calcified Tissue Minerals. Archaeometry 44:435–446.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee-Thorp, Julia A., and van der Merwe, Nikolaas J. 1987 Carbon Isotope Analysis of Fossil Bone Apatite. South African Journal of Science 83:712–715.Google Scholar
Lee-Thorp, Julia A., and van der Merwe, Nikolaas J. 1991 Aspects of the Chemistry of Modern and Fossil Biological Apatites. Journal of Archaeological Science 18:343–354.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lopinot, Neal H. 1997 Cahokian Food Production Reconsidered. In Cahokia: Domination and Ideology in the Mississippian World, edited by Pauketat, Timothy R. and Emerson, Thomas E., pp. 52–68. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.Google Scholar
Lusteck, Robert 2006 The Migrations of Maize into the Southeastern United States. In Histories of Maize: Multidisciplinary Approaches to the Prehistory, Linguistics, Biogeography, Domestication, and Evolution of Maize, edited by Staller, John E., Tykot, Robert H., and Benz, Bruce F., pp. 521–528. Academic Press, Burlington, Massachusetts.Google Scholar
Lynott, Mark, Boutton, Thomas W., Price, James E., and Nelson, Dwight E. 1986 Stable Carbon Isotope Evidence for Maize Agriculture in Southeast Missouri and Northeast Arkansas. American Antiquity 51:51–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Matsuoka, Yoshihiro, Vigouroux, Yves, Goodman, Major M., Sanchez, Jesus G., Buckler, Edward and Doebley, John 2002 A Single Domestication for Maize Shown by Multilocus Microsatellite Genotyping. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science of the United States of America 99(9):6080–6084.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McElrath, Dale L., Emerson, Thomas E., and Fortier, Andrew C. 2000 Social Evolution or Social Response? A Fresh Look at the “Good Gray Cultures” after Four Decades of Midwest Research. In Late Woodland Societies: Tradition and Transformation across the Midcontinent, edited by Emerson, Thomas E., McElrath, Dale L., and Fortier, Andrew C., pp. 3–36. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.Google Scholar
Meinkoth, Michael, Hedman, Kristin M., and McElrath, Dale L. 2001 The Cunningham Site: An Early Late Woodland Occupation in the American Bottom. Illinois Transportation Archaeological Research Program, Transportation Archaeological Research Report No. 9. University of Illinois, Champaign.Google Scholar
Meyers, Thomas P. 2006 Hominy Technology and the Emergence of Mississippian Societies. In Histories of Maize: Multidisciplinary Approaches to the Prehistory, Linguistics, Biogeography, Domestication, and Evolution of Maize, edited by Staller, John E., Tykot, Robert H., and Benz, Bruce F., pp. 511–520. Academic Press, Burlington, Massachusetts.Google Scholar
Milner, George R. 1990 The Late Prehistoric Cahokia Cultural System of the Mississippi River Valley: Foundations, Florescence, and Fragmentation. Journal of World Prehistory 4:1–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Milner, George R. 1998 The Cahokia Chiefdom: The Archaeology of a Mississippian Society. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Minagawa, Masao, and Wada, Eitaro 1984 Stepwise Enrichment of 15N along Food Chains: Further Evidence and the Relation between δ15N and Animal Age. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 48:1135–1140.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mueller, Natalie G., and Fritz, Gayle J. 2016 Women as Symbols and Actors in Ritualized Landscapes of the Mississippi Valley: Evidence from Female Flint-Clay Statues and Effigy Vessels. In Native American Landscapes: An Engendered Perspective, edited by Claassen, Cheryl, pp. 109–148. University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville.Google Scholar
O'Leary, Marion H. 1988 Carbon Isotopes in Photosynthesis. BioScience 38:328–336.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pauketat, Timothy R. 2001 Practice and History in Archaeology: An Emerging Paradigm. Anthropological Theory 1:73–98.Google Scholar
Pauketat, Timothy R. 2004 Ancient Cahokia and the Mississippians. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Pauketat, Timothy R. 2007 Chiefdoms and Other Archaeological Delusions. AltaMira, Lanham, Maryland.Google Scholar
Pauketat, Timothy R. 2009 Cahokia: Ancient America's Great City on the Mississippi. Penguin, New York.Google Scholar
Pauketat, Timothy R. 2012 The Archaeology of the Cosmos: Rethinking Agency and Religion in Ancient America. Routledge, New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pauketat, Timothy R. 2018 Thinking through the Ashes, Architecture, and Artifacts of Ancient East St. Louis. In Revealing Greater Cahokia, North America's First Native City: Rediscovery and Large-Scale Excavations of the East St. Louis Precinct, edited by Emerson, Thomas E., Koldehoff, Brad H., and Brennan, Tamira K., pp. 463–486. Illinois State Archaeological Survey Studies in Archaeology No. 12. University of Illinois, Champaign.Google Scholar
Pauketat, Timothy R., Alt, Susan M., and Krutchen, Jeffery D. 2015 City of Earth and Wood: New Cahokia and Its Material-Historical Implications. In Early Cities in Comparative Perspective, 4000 BCE–1200 CE, edited by Yoffee, Norman, pp. 437–454. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Pauketat, Timothy R., and Emerson, Thomas E. 1991 The Ideology of Authority and the Power of the Pot. American Anthropologist 93:919–941.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pauketat, Timothy R., Emerson, Thomas E., and Alt, Susan M. 2018 Bounding Cahokia. In Revealing Greater Cahokia, North America's First Native City: Rediscovery and Large-Scale Excavations of the East St. Louis Precinct, edited by Emerson, Thomas E., Koldehoff, Brad H., and Brennan, Tamira K., pp. 35–41. Illinois State Archaeological Survey, Studies in Archaeology No. 12. University of Illinois, Champaign.Google Scholar
Pauketat, Timothy R., Kelly, Lucretia S., Fritz, Gayle J., and Lopinot, Neal H. 2002 The Residues of Feasting and Public Ritual at Early Cahokia. American Antiquity 67:257–279.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pauketat, Timothy R., and Lopinot, Neal H. 1997 Cahokian Population Dynamics. In Cahokia: Domination and Ideology in the Mississippian World, edited by Pauketat, Timothy R. and Emerson, Thomas E., pp. 103–123. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.Google Scholar
Perttula, Timothy K. 2008 Caddo Agriculture on the Western Frontier of the Eastern Woodlands. Plains Anthropologist 53:79–105.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Prentice, Guy 1986 An Analysis of the Symbolism Expressed by the Birger Figurine. American Antiquity 51:239–266.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Price, T. Douglas 2003 Emerging Ideas about Complexity Emerging. In Theory, Method, and Practice in Modern Archaeology, edited by Jeske, Robert J. and Charles, Douglas K., pp. 51–67. Praeger, Westport, Connecticut.Google Scholar
Price, T. Douglas, and Brown, James A., Editors 1985 Prehistoric Hunter-Gatherers: The Emergence of Cultural Complexity. Academic Press, Orlando, Florida.Google Scholar
Reber, Elleanora A. 2006 A Hard Row to Hoe: Changing Maize Use in the American Bottom and Surrounding Areas. In Histories of Maize: Multidisciplinary Approaches to the Prehistory, Linguistics, Biogeography, Domestication, and Evolution of Maize, edited by Staller, John E., Tykot, Robert H., and Benz, Bruce F., pp. 236–248. Academic Press, Burlington, Massachusetts.Google Scholar
Reilly, F. Kent III 2004 People of Earth, People of Sky: Visualizing the Sacred in Native American Art of the Mississippian Period. In Hero, Hawk, and Open Hand: American Indian Art of the Ancient Midwest and South, edited by Townsend, Richard F. and Sharp, Robert V., pp. 125–137. Art Institute of Chicago and Yale University Press, New Haven, Connecticut.Google Scholar
Reimer, Paula J., Bard, Edouard, Bayliss, Alex, Beck, J. Warren, Glackwell, Paul G., Ramsey, Christopher Bronk, Buck, Caitlin E., Cheng, Hai, Edwards, R. Lawrence, Friedrich, Micheal, Grootes, Pieter M., Guilderson, Thomas P., Haflidason, Haflidi, Hajdas, Irka, Hatté, Christine, Heaton, Timothy J., Hoffman, Dirk L., Hogg, Alan G., Hughen, Konrad A., Kaiser, K. Felix, Kromer, Bernd, Manning, Sturt W., and Niu, Nu 2013 IntCal13 and Marine13 Radiocarbon Age Calibration Curves 0-50,000 Year Cal BP. In Radiocarbon 55:1869–1887.Google Scholar
Riley, Thomas J., Walz, Gregory R., Bareis, Charles J., Fortier, Andrew C., and Parker, Kathryn E. 1994 Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) Dates Confirm Early Zea mays in the Mississippi River Valley. American Antiquity 59:490–498.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rose, Fionnuala 2008 Intra-Community Variation in Diet during the Adoption of a New Staple Crop in the Eastern Woodlands. American Antiquity 73:413–439.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schober, Theresa M. 1998 Reinvestigation of Maize Introduction in West-Central Illinois: A Stable Isotope Analysis of Bone Collagen and Apatite Carbonate from Late Archaic to Mississippian Times. Master's thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of Illinois, Champaign.Google Scholar
Schoeninger, Margaret J., and DeNiro, Michael J. 1982 Carbon and Isotope Ratios of Apatite from Fossil Bone Cannot be Used to Reconstruct Diets of Animals. Nature 297:577–578.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schurr, Mark R., and Redmond, Brian G. 1991 A Stable Isotope Analysis of Incipient Maize Horticulturalists from the Gard Island 2 Site. Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology 16:69–84.Google Scholar
Shuler, Kristina A., Hodge, Shannon C., Danforth, Marie E., and Cook, Danielle N. 2012 In the Shadow of Moundville: A Bioarchaeological View of the Transition to Agriculture in the Central Tombigbee Valley of Alabama and Mississippi. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 31:586–603.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simon, Mary L. 2000 Regional Variations in Plant Use Strategies in the Midwest during the Late Woodland. In Late Woodland Societies: Tradition and Transformation across the Midcontinent, edited by Emerson, Thomas E., McElrath, Dale L., and Fortier, Andrew C., pp. 37–76. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.Google Scholar
Simon, Mary L. 2017 Reevaluating the Evidence for Middle Woodland Maize from the Holding Site. American Antiquity 82:140–150.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simon, Mary L. 2019 New Dates on Old Maize. Paper presented at 77th Annual Plains Anthropological Conference, Bloomington, Indiana, October 16–19.Google Scholar
Simon, Mary, and Parker, Kathryn 2006 Prehistoric Plant Use in the American Bottom: New Thoughts and Interpretations. Southeastern Archaeology 25:170–211.Google Scholar
Simon, Mary L. 2014 Reevaluating the Introduction of Maize into the American Bottom and Western Illinois. In Reassessing the Timing, Rate, and Adoption Trajectories of Domesticate Use in the Midwest and Great Lakes, edited by Raviele, Maria E. and Lovis, William A., pp. 97–134. Occasional Papers No. 1. Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology, Champaign, Illinois.Google Scholar
Slater, Philip A., Hedman, Kristin M., and Emerson, Thomas E. 2014 Immigrants at the Mississippian Polity of Cahokia: Strontium Isotope Evidence for Population Movement. Journal of Archaeological Science 44:117–127.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stuiver, Minze, and Reimer, Paula 2016 CALIB REV 7.1.0 Radiocarbon Calibration Program. Electronic document, http://calib.org/calib/ accessed May 20, 2016.Google Scholar
Tankersley, Kenneth B., Clover, Denis G., and Lentz, David L. 2016 Stable Carbon Isotope Values (δ13C) of Purslane (Portulaca oleracea) and Their Archaeological Significance. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 7:189–194.Google Scholar
Tieszen, Larry L., and Fagre, Tim 1993 Effects of Diet Quality and Composition on the Isotopic Composition of Respiratory CO2, Bone Collagen, Bioapatite, and Soft Tissues. In Prehistoric Human Bone: Archaeology at the Molecular Level, edited by Lambert, Joseph B. and Grupe, Gisela, pp. 121–155. Springer-Verlag, New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van der Leeuw, Sander E. (editor) 1981 Archaeological Approaches to the Study of Complexity. Institute of Pre-and Proto- History, Amsterdam.Google Scholar
Van der Merwe, Nikolass J., and Vogel, John C. 1978 13C Content of Collagen as a Measure of Prehistoric Diet in Woodland North America. Nature 292:536–538.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vigouroux, Yves, Glaubitz, Jeffery C., Matsuoka, Yoshihiro, Goodman, Major M., Sánchez, Jesús G., and Doebley, John 2008 Population Structure and Genetic Diversity of New World Maize Races Assessed by DNA Microsatellites. American Journal of Botany 95:1240–1253.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Warinner, Christina, and Tuross, Noreen 2009 Alkaline Cooking and Stable Isotope Tissue-Diet Spacing in Swine: Archaeological Implications. Journal of Archaeological Science 36:1690–1697.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, Diane, and Perttula, Timothy K. 2013 Reconstructing the Paleodiet of the Caddo through Stable Isotopes. American Antiquity 78:702–723.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wright, Patti J., and Shaffer, Christopher A. 2014 Crop Selection: Perspectives from the Lower Missouri River Basin. In Reassessing the Timing, Rate, and Adoption Trajectories of Domesticate Use in the Midwest and Great Lakes, edited by Raviele, Maria E. and Lovis, William A., pp. 73–96. Occasional Papers No. 1. Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology, Champaign, Illinois.Google Scholar
Supplementary material: File

Emerson et al. supplementary material

Emerson et al. supplementary material

Download Emerson et al. supplementary material(File)
File 1.6 MB