Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-8kt4b Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-06-25T08:19:20.586Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Unfinished Migrations: Reflections on the African Diaspora and the Making of the Modern World

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  23 May 2014

Tiffany Ruby Patterson  and
Robin D. G. Kelley
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract:

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

This article engages the very definition/meaning of diaspora as a concept at a moment when scholars are rushing to embrace the field of diaspora studies. Much of the current discussion continues to suggest that diaspora is merely a logical manifestation of dispersion, no matter how the diaspora was created or how long it had been in existence. This essay argues that linkages that tie the diaspora together must be articulated and are not inevitable, and that the diaspora is both process and condition. As a process it is always in the making, and as condition it is situated within global race and gender hierarchies. However, just as the diaspora is made, it can be unmade, and thus scholars must explore the moments of its unmaking. Indeed, the efforts to unravel the constituent elements of the diaspora(s) raise significant questions concerning how Africa is conceptualized in relation to its diaspora. These efforts also underscore the need to examine overlapping diasporas from many historical locations.

Résumé:

Résumé:

Cet article explore la définition et le sens même de diaspora en tant que concept à un moment où les chercheurs se pressent tous pour embrasser le domaine des études sur les diasporas. Une grande part des débats actuels continue à suggérer que la diaspora est tout simplement une manifestation logique de la dispersion, qu'importe la manière dont cette diaspora ait été créée ou depuis combien de temps elle existe. Cet article tente de démontrer que les relations qui lient la diaspora doivent s'articuler et ne sont pas inévitables, et que la diaspora est à la fois processus et condition. En tant que processus, elle est sans arrêt en cours de formation, et en tant que condition, elle se situe à l'intérieur des hiérarchies globales de race et de sexe (ou “gender”). Cependant, tout comme la diaspora est faite, elle peut être défaite et les chercheurs doivent ainsi examiner les moments de son démantèlement. En effet, les efforts faits pour discerner les éléments constitutifs de la ou des diasporas soulèvent des questions importantes sur la façon dont l'Afrique est conceptualisée relativement à sa diaspora. Ces efforts mettent également en évidence le besoin d'examiner les diasporas en situation d'intersection provenant de nombreux emplacements dans l'histoire.

Type
Special Issue on the Diaspora
Information
African Studies Review , Volume 43 , Issue 1: Africa's Diaspora: A Special Issue , April 2000 , pp. 11 - 45
Copyright
Copyright © African Studies Association 2000

References

Abu-Lughod, Janet. 1989. Before European Hegemony: The World System A. D. 1250–1350. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
African Diaspora Research Project. 1990. Creating a Paradigm and Research Agenda for Comparative Studies of the Worldwide Dispersion of African Peoples: Proceedings of the International Advisory Committee of the African Diaspora Research Project.Google Scholar
Aguirre, Sergio. 1951. “Los independientes de color.” Fundamentos 11 (05): 476–81.Google Scholar
Allen, Ernest Jr., 1994. “When Japan was ‘Champion of the Darker Races’: Sakota Takahashi and the Flowering of Black Messianic Nationalism.” Black Scholar 24: 23–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allen, Ernest Jr., 1995. “Waiting for Tojo: The Pro-Japan Vigil of Black Missourians, 1932–1943.” Gateway Heritage 16: 38–55.Google Scholar
Allen, Ernest Jr., 1996. “Religious Heterodoxy and Nationalist Tradition: The Continuing Evolution of the Nation of Islam.” Black Scholar 26: 2–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alpers, Edward. 1997. “The African Diaspora in the Northwestern Indian Ocean: Reconsideration of an Old Problem, New Directions for Research.” Paper presented at conference, “The Northwestern Indian Ocean as Cultural Corridor,” Stockholm University, 01 17–19.Google Scholar
Amadiume, Ife. 1987. Male Daughters, Female Husbands: Gender and Sex in an African Society. London: Zed Books.Google Scholar
Aminzade, Ron. 1997. “Racial Politics and Colonial Legacies in East Africa: The Case of Post-Colonial Tanganyika” (unpublished paper).Google Scholar
Andrade, Mario de. [1958] 1993. Antologia da poseia negra de expressão portuguesa: precedida de cultura negro-africana e assimilação. Paris: P.J. Oswald.Google Scholar
Andrews, George Reid. 1991. Blacks and Whites in Sao Paulo, Brazil, 1888–1988. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.Google Scholar
Arredondo, Alberto. 1939. El negro en Cuba. Havana: Editorial “Alfa.” Google Scholar
Appadurai, Arjun. 1996. Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Austen, Ralph A. 1979. “The Trans-Saharan Slave Trade: A Tentative Census”. In Uncommon Market: Essays in the Economic History of the Atlantic Slave Trade, ed. Gemery, Henry A. and Hogendorn, Jan S.. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Bair, Barbara. Forthcoming. Freedom Is Never a Final Act: Women Emerge from the Garvey Movement. Chapel Hill: University of Nordi Carolina Press.Google Scholar
Banaji, J. 1972. “For a Theory of Colonial Modes of Production.” Economic and Political Weekly, 12 23, 2498–502.Google Scholar
Barnes, Sandra T., ed. 1989. Africa's Ogun: Old World and New. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Barou, Jacque. 1978. Travailleurs Africains en France: role des cultures d'origine. Grenoble: Presses universitaires de Grenoble.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barrett, Leonard. 1974. Soul-Force: African Heritage in Afro-American Religion. Garden City, N.Y.: Anchor Press.Google Scholar
Bascom, William R. 1980. “African Folktales in America.” Research in African Literature 11, no. 2 (summer): 175–86.Google Scholar
Bastide, Roger. 1972. African Civilisations in the New World. London: C. Hurst.Google Scholar
Bastide, Roger 1977. “Modes of Production in a Materialist Conception of History.” Capital and Class 1: 1–44.Google Scholar
Bastide, Roger 1978. The African Religions of Brazil: Toward a Sociology of the Interpretation of Civilisations. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beckford, George L. 1972. Persistent Poverty: Underdevelopment in Plantation Economies of the Third World. London: Zed Books.Google Scholar
Beckles, Hilary McD. 1989. Natural Rebels: A Social History of Enslaved Black Women in Barbados. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.Google Scholar
Beltrán, Gonzalo Aguirre. 1942. “Tribal Origins of Slaves in Mexico.” Journal of Negro History 31: 269–352.Google Scholar
Beltrán, Gonzalo Aguirre. 1972. La poblacion negra de Mèxico: estudio ethnohistórico. 2d edition. Corregida y aumentada Mèxico: Fondo de Cultura Económica.Google Scholar
Benítez-Rojo, Antonio. [1992] 1998. The Repeating Island: The Caribbean and the Post-Modern Perspective. Durham: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Bennett, Aubrey, and Watson, G. L., eds. 1989. Emerging Perspectives on the Black Diaspora. Lanham: University Press of America.Google Scholar
Best, Lloyd. 1968. “Outlines of a Model of Pure Plantation Economy.” Social and Economic Studies 17 (09).Google Scholar
Blackburn, Robin. 1988. The Overthrow of Colonial Slavery, 1776–1848. London: Verso.Google Scholar
Blyden, Edward Wilmot. 1967. Christianity, Islam and the Negro Race. Edinburgh: University Press.Google Scholar
Blyden, Edward Wilmot. 1971. Black Spokesman: Selected Published Writings of Edward Wilmot Blyden. New York: Humanities Press.Google Scholar
Braidwood, Stephen. 1994. Black Poor and White Philanthropists: London's Blacks and the Foundation of the Sierra Leone Settlement, 1786–1791. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brandon, George. 1993. Santeria from Africa to the New World: The Dead Sell Memories. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Brock, Lisa. 1996. “Questioning the Diaspora: Hegemony, Black Intellectuals and Doing International History from Below.” ISSUE: A Journal of Opinion 24 (2): 10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brock, Lisa, and Castenada, Digna, eds. 1998. Between Races and Empire: African-Americans and Cubans before the Cuban Revolution. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.Google Scholar
Brooks, George. 1993. Landlords and Strangers: Ecology, Society and Trade in Western Africa, 1000–1630. Boulder: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Brown, Elsa Barkley. 1994. “Negotiating and Transforming the Public Sphere: African American Political Life in the Transition from Slavery to Freedom.” Public Culture 7 (fall): 107–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, William Wells. 1876. The Rising Son: Or the Antecedents and Advancement of the Colored Race. Boston: A.G. Brown.Google Scholar
Burgos, Adrian. Forthcoming. “Playing in a Black and White ‘Field of Dreams’: Race, Culture, and Identity among Latinos in North American Professional Baseball, 1870s–1980s.” Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan.Google Scholar
Burton, Richard D. E., and Reno, Fred, eds. 1995. French and West Indian: Martinique, Guadeloupe and French Guiana Today. London: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Bush, Barbara. 1990. Slave Women in Caribbean Society, 1650–1838. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Bush, Rod. 1998. ‘We Are Not What We Seem’: Black Nationalism and Class Struggle in the American Century. New York: New York University Press, 83–112.Google Scholar
Butler, Kim. 1998. Freedoms Given, Freedoms Won: Afro-Brazilians in Post-Abolition São Paulo and Salvador. New Brunswick, N. J.: Rutgers University Press.Google Scholar
Carby, Hazel. 1987. Reconstructing Womanhood. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Carby, Hazel. 1998. Race Men. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carneiro, Edison, and Ferras, Aydano do couto. 1940. “O Congresso Afroi-Brasileiro de Bahia.” In Congresso Afro-Brasileiro (Second), O Negro no Brasil. Rio de Janeiro: Civilização Brasileira.Google Scholar
Carretta, Vincent. 1996. Unchained Voices: An Anthology of Black Authors in the English-Speaking World of the Eighteenth Century. Lexington: University of Kentucky Press.Google Scholar
Carroll, Patrick. 1991. Blacks in Colonial Veracruz: Race, Ethnicity and Regional Development. Austin: University of Texas Press.Google Scholar
Chamberlain, Mary. 1997. Narratives of Exile and Return. New York: St. Martin's Press.Google Scholar
Chandler, Nahum. 1996. “The Problem of Purity: A Study in the Early Work of W.E.B. Du Bois, 1896–1915.” Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago.Google Scholar
Chapeaux, Pedro Deschamps. 1963. El negro en el periodismo cubano en el siglo xix. Havana: Ediciones Revolucion.Google Scholar
Chapeaux, Pedro Deschamps. 1971. El negro en la economic habanera del siglo xix. Havana: Instituto Cubano del Libro.Google Scholar
Chaudhuri, K. N. 1990. Asia before Europe: Economy and Civilization of the Indian Ocean from the Rise of Islam to 1750. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Chege, Michael. 1996. “Color Lines: Africa and Asia in the Twenty-First Century.” Transition 70: 20–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark-Lewis, Elizabeth. 1994. Living In, Living Out: African American Domestics in Washington, D.C. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution.Google Scholar
Clegg, Claude. 1997. An Original Man: The Life and Times of Elijah Muhammed. New York: St. Martin's Press.Google Scholar
Clifford, James. 1997. Routes: Travel and Translation in the Late Twentieth Century. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Cobley, Alan Gregor. 1992. “‘Far from Home’: The Origins and Significance of the Afro-Caribbean Community in South Africa to 1930.” Journal of Southern African Studies 18: 349–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Conniff, Michael, and Davis, Thomas J.. 1994. Africans in the Americas: A History of the Black Diaspora. New York: St. Martin's Press.Google Scholar
Cooper, Frederick. 1980. From Slaves to Squatters: Plantation Labor and Agriculture in Zanzibar and Coastal Kenya, 1890–1925. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Cooper, Frederick. 2000. Beyond Slavery: Explorations of Race, Labor, and Citizenship in Post-Emancipation Societies. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.Google Scholar
Curtin, Philip D. 1984. Cross-Cultural Trade in World History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davies, Carol Boyce. 1994. Migrations of the Subject: Black Women, Writing and Identity. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Dewitte, Philippe. 1985. Les mouvements nègres en France, 1919–1939. Paris: L'Harmattan.Google Scholar
Doyle, Joe. 1996. “Striking for Ireland on the New York Docks.” In The New York Irish, ed. Bayor, Ronald and Meagher, Timother J.. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 357–74.Google Scholar
Drachler, Jacob. 1975. Black Homeland/Black Diaspora: Cross Currents of the African Relationship. Port Washington, N.Y.: Kennikat Press.Google Scholar
Drake, St. Clair. 1982. “Diaspora Studies and Pan-Africanism.” In Harris, Joseph E., ed., Global Dimensions of the African Diaspora. Washington, D.C.: Howard University Press.Google Scholar
Drake, St. Clair. 1987–1990. Black Folk Here and There: An Essay in History and Anthropology. 2 vols. Los Angeles: Center for Afro-American Studies, University of California.Google Scholar
Du Bois, W.E.B. [1935] 1969. Black Reconstruction in America, 1860–1880. New York: Atheneum Press.Google Scholar
Du Bois, W.E.B.. 1947. The World and Africa: An Inquiry into the Part Which Africa Played in World History. New York: Viking.Google Scholar
Dussel, Enrique. 1995. The Invention of the Americas: Eclipse of “the Other” and the Myth of Modernity. New York: Continuum.Google Scholar
Edwards, Brent. 1997. “Black Globality: The International Shape of Black Intellectual Culture.” Ph.D. diss., Columbia University.Google Scholar
Eltis, David. 1993. “Europeans and the Rise and Fall of African Slavery in the Americas: An Interpretation.” American Historical Review 98 (5): 1399–1423.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eltis, David, and Richardson, David, eds. 1997. Routes to Slavery: Direction, Ethnicity and Mortality in the Atlantic Slave Trade. London: Frank Cass.Google Scholar
Fabre, Michel. 1991. From Harlem to Paris: Black American Writers in France, 1840–1980. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar
Fernandes, Florestan. [1965] 1971. A Integração do Negro na Sociedade de Classes. 2 vols. São Paulo: Dominus Editora. (Translated as The Negro in Brazilian Society. New York: Atheneum.)Google Scholar
Fernandes, Florestan, and Bastide, Roger. [1955] 1971. Brancos e Negros em São Paulo: Ensaio Sociológico sôbre Aspectos da Formação, Manifestacães Atuais e Efeitos do Preconceito de Côrna Sociedade Paulistana. 3d ed. São Paulo: Campanhia Editora. (Originally published as Relações Raciais entre Negros e Brancos em São Paulo.)Google Scholar
Ferrer, Ada. 1998. “Rustic Men, Civilized Nation: Race, Culture and Contention on the Eve of Cuban Independence.” Hispanic American Historical Review 78: 662–85CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ferrer, Ada. 1999. Insurgent Cuba: Race, Nation, Revolution, 1868–1898. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.Google Scholar
Fick, Carolyn. 1990. The Making of Haiti: The Saint-Domingue Revolution from Below. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press.Google Scholar
Flores, Juan, ed. 1993. Divided Borders: Essays on Puerto Rican Identity. Houston, Tex.: Arte Publico Press.Google Scholar
Foner, Eric. 1983. Nothing But Freedom: Emancipation and Its Legacy. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press.Google Scholar
Fraginals, Manuel Moreno. 1976. The Sugarmill: The Socioeconomic Complex of Sugar in Cuba. New York: Monthly Review Press Google Scholar
Frank, A. G. 1967. Capitalism and Underdevelopment in Latin America. New York: Monthly Review Press.Google Scholar
Frank, A. G.. 1969. Latin America: Underdevelopment or Revolution. New York: Monthly Review Press.Google Scholar
Frank, A. G.. 1978. World Accumulation, 1492–1789. New York: Monthly Review Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frank, Dana. 1994. Purchasing Power, Consumer Organizing, Gender and the Seattle Labor Movement, 1919–1924. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Frazier, E. Franklin. 1942. “The Negro in Bahia, Brazil.” American Sociological Review 7: 465–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Freyre, Gilberto. 1978. The Master and the Slaves (Casa-Grande e Senzala). Translated by Putnam, Samuel. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.Google Scholar
Friedemann, Nina S. de, and Arocha, Jaime. 1986. De Sol a Sol: genesis, transformacion y presencia de los negros en Colombia. Bogota: Editorial Planeta.Google Scholar
Friedheim, Robert L. 1964. The Seattle General Strike. Seattle: University of Washington Press.Google Scholar
Fryer, Peter. 1984. Staying Power: The History of Back People in Britain. London: Pluto Press.Google Scholar
Genovese, Eugene. 1970. The World the Slave Holders Made: Two Essays of Interpretation. New York: Pantheon Books.Google Scholar
Genovese, Eugene. 1974. From Rebellion to Revolution: Afro-American Slave Revolts in the Making of the Modern World. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press.Google Scholar
Gill, Gerald. 1988. “Dissent, Discontent and Disinterest: Afro-American Opposition to the United States Wars of the Twentieth Century.” (Unpublished).Google Scholar
Gilmore, Glenda. 1996. Gender and Jim Crow: Women and the Politics of White Supremacy in North Carolina. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.Google Scholar
Gilroy, Paul. 1993. The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Gomez, Michael. 1998. Exchanging Our Country Marks: The Transformation of African Identities in the Colonial and Antebellum South. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.Google Scholar
Gonzales, Leila. 1985. “The Unified Black Movement: A New Stage in Black Political Mobilization.” In Race, Class and Power in Brazil., ed. Fontaine, Pierre-Michel. Los Angeles: Center for Afro-American Studies, University of California.Google Scholar
Greaves, I. 1959. “Plantations in the World Economy.” In Plantation Systems of the New World. Washington, D.C.: Pan American Union.Google Scholar
Gregory, Robert. 1993. South Asians in East Africa. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Greene, Sandra E. 1996. Gender, Ethnicity, and Social Change on the Upper Slave Coast: A History of the Anlo-Ewe. Portsmouth, N.H.: Heinemann.Google Scholar
Grosfoguel, Ramon, and Georas, Chloe. 1996. “The Racialization of Latino Caribbean Migrants in the New York Metropolitan Area.” Centro de Estudios Puertorriquenos 8: 190–201.Google Scholar
Grossberg, Lawrence. 1995. “On Postmodernism and Articulation: An Interview with Stuart Hall.” In Stuart Hall: Critical Dialogues in Cultural Studies, ed. Morely, David and Chen, Kuan-Hsing. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Hale, Elizabeth Grace. 1998. Making Whiteness: The Culture of Segregation in the South, 1890–1940. New York: Pantheon.Google Scholar
Hall, Gwendolyn Midlo. 1992. Africans in Colonial Louisiana: The Development of Afro-Creole Society in the Eighteenth Century. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press.Google Scholar
Hall, Stuart. 1990. “Cultural Identity and Diaspora.” In Identity, Community, Culture, Difference. London: Lawrence and Wishart.Google Scholar
Hall, Stuart. 1996. “The Question of Cultural Identity.” In Modernity and Introduction to Modern Societies, ed. Hall, Stuart et al Oxford: Blackwell, 596–634.Google Scholar
Hanchard, Michael. 1990. “Identity, Meaning and the African American.” Social Text 24: 31–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hanchard, Michael. 1991. “Racial Consciousness and Afro-Diasporic Experiences: Antonio Gramsci Reconsidered.” Socialism and Demoncracy 7: 83–106.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hanchard, Michael. 1994. Orpheus and Power: The Movimento Negro of Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo, Brazil, 1945–1988. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Hanchard, Michael, ed. 1999. Racial Politics in Contemporary Brazil. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Harris, Cheryl. 1993. “Whiteness as Property.” Harvard Law Review 106:1707–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harris, Joseph. 1971. The African Presence in Asia: Consequences of the East African Slave Trade. Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern University Press.Google Scholar
Harris, Joseph. 1982. “A Comparative Approach to the Study of the African Diaspora.” In Global Dimensions of the African Diaspora, ed. Harris, Joseph. Washington, D.C.: Howard University Press, 112–24.Google Scholar
Harrison, Hubert Henry. [1920] 1997. When Africa Awakes: The “Inside Story” of the Stirrings and Strivings of the New Negro in the Western World. Baltimore: Black Classic Press.Google Scholar
Hasenbalg, Carlos A. 1979. Discriminação e Desigualdades Raciais no Brasil. Rio de Janeiro: Graal.Google Scholar
Helg, Aline. 1995. Our Rightful Share: The Afro-Cuban Struggle for Equality, 1886–1912. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.Google Scholar
Henderson, John P., and Reed, Harry A., eds. 1989. Studies in the African Diaspora: A Memorial to James R Hooker, 1929–1976. Dover, Mass.: Majority Press.Google Scholar
Herskovits, Melville. 1941. The Myth of the Negro Past. Boston: Beacon Press.Google Scholar
Herskovits, Melville. 1951. “The Present Status and Needs of Afroamerican Research.” Journal of Negro History 36: 123–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Herskovits, Melville. 1966. The New World Negro: Selected Papers in Afro-American Studies. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Higginbotham, Evelyn Brooks. 1993. Righteous Discontent: The Women's Movement in the Black Baptist Church, 1880–1920. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Hill, Robert. [1918-1922] 1987. “Racial and Radical: Cyril V. Briggs, the Crusader Magazine and the African Blood Brotherhood, 1918–1922.” Introduction to the Crusader Fascimile Editions. New York: Garland Press. Reprint.Google Scholar
Hine, Darlene Clark. 1989. Black Women in White: Racial Conflict and Cooperation in the Nursing Profession. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Hine, Darlene Clark, and McLeod, Jacqueline, eds. 1999. Crossing Boundaries: Comparative History of Black People in Diaspora. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Holloway, Joseph, and Vass, Winifred. 1993. The African Heritage of American English. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Holt, Thomas. 1992. The Problem of Freedom: Race, Labor and Politics in Jamaica and Britain, 1832–1938. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Hooker, James R. 1967. Black Revolutionary: George Padmore's Path from Communism to Pan-Africanism. New York: Praeger.Google Scholar
Howard, Philip A. 1998. Changing History: Afro-Cuban Cabildos and Societies of Color in the Nineteenth Century. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press.Google Scholar
Hunter, Tera. 1997. To ‘Joy My Freedom’: Southern Black Women's Lives and Labors After the Civil War. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Ianni, Octavio. 1987. Raças e Classes Sociais no Brasil 3d ed. São Paulo: Brasiliense.Google Scholar
Ianni, Octavio. 1988. Escravidão e Racismo. 2d ed. Sao Paulo: Hucitec.Google Scholar
International Labour Organization. 1966. Plantation Workers: Conditions of Work and Standards of Living. Geneva.Google Scholar
Jacobson, Matthew Frye. 1998. Whiteness of a Different Color: European Immigrants and the Alchemy of Race. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
James, C. L. R. 1938. The Black Jacobins: Toussaint L'Ouverture and the San Domingo Revolution. 2d ed. New York: Vintage Books.Google Scholar
James, George E. M. 1954. Stolen Legacy. New York: Philosophical Library.Google Scholar
James, Winston. 1996. “Afro–Puerto Rican Radicalism in the United States: Reflections on the Political Trajectories of Arturo Schomburg and Jesus Colon.” Centro de Estudios Puertoriquenos 7: 96–127.Google Scholar
James, Winston. 1998. “From a Class for Itself to a Race on Its Own: The Strange Case of Afro-Cuban Radicalism and Afro-Cubans in Florida, 1870–1940.” In James, Winston, Holding Aloft the Banner of Ethiopia: Caribbean Radicalism in Early Twentieth-Century America. New York: Verso, 232–57Google Scholar
James, Winston. 1998. “The Peculiarities of Afro-Hispanic Radicalism in the United States: The Political Trajectories of Arturo Schomburg and Jesus Colon.” In James, Winston, Holding Aloft the Banner of Ethiopia: Caribbean Radicalism in Early Twentieth-Century America. New York: Verso, 195–231.Google Scholar
James, Winston, and Harris, Clive, eds. 1993. Inside Babylon: The Caribbean Diaspora in Britain. London: Verso.Google Scholar
Johnson, Charles S. 1930. The Negro in American Civilization. New York: Holt and Co. Google Scholar
Johnson, Charles S.. [1934] 1969. The Shadow of the Plantation. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Johnson, Charles S.. 1951. Education and the Cultural Crisis. New York: Macmillan.Google Scholar
SirJohnston, Harry. 1910. The Negro in the New World. New York: Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Joshi, Barbara R., ed. 1986. Untouchables: Voices of the Dalit Liberation Movement. London: Zed Press.Google Scholar
Kelley, Robin D. G. 1990. Hammer and Hoe: Alabama Communists During the Great Depression. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.Google Scholar
Kelley, Robin D. G.. 1994. “‘This Ain't Ethiopia, But It'll Do’: African Americans and the Spanish Civil War.” In Race Rebels: Culture, Politics, and the Black Working Class, ed. Kelley, Robin D. G.. New York: The Free Press.Google Scholar
Kelley, Robin D. G.. 1996. “The World the Diaspora Made: C. L. R. James and the Politics of History.” In Rethinking C. L. R. James, ed. Farred, Grant. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.Google Scholar
Kelley, Robin D. G.. 2000. “‘But a Local Phase of a World Problem’: Black History's Global Vision.” Journal of American History (winter).Google Scholar
Kilson, Martin L., and Rotberg, Robert I., eds. 1976. African Diaspora: Interpretive Essays. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Knight, Franklin. 1974. The African Dimension in Latin American Societies. New York: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Kutzinski, Vera. 1993. Sugar Secrets: Race and the Erotics of Cuban Nationalism. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia.Google Scholar
Laclau, E. 1971. “Feudalism and Capitalism in Latin America.” New Left Review 67: 19–38.Google Scholar
Laó-Montes, Agustín, and Davila, Arlene. Forthcoming. Mambo Montage: The Latinization of NIUYOL. New York: Columbia University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lapidus, Ira. 1988. A History of Islamic Societies, Part 2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
LeMelle, Sidney J., and Kelley, Robin D. G., eds. 1994. Imagining Home: Class, Culture, and Nationalism in the African Diaspora. London: Verso Press.Google Scholar
Lewis, Earl. 1997. “‘To Turn as on a Pivot’: Writing African Americans into a History of Overlapping Diasporas.” American Historical Review 100 (06): 765–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lewis, Robert B. 1844. Light and Truth: Collected from Bible and Ancient and Modern History. Boston.Google Scholar
Lewis, Rupert. 1987. Marcus Garvey: Anti-Colonial Champion. London: Karia Press.Google Scholar
Linebaugh, Peter. 1982. “All the Atlantic Mountains Shook.” Labour/Le Travailleur 10: 87–121.Google Scholar
Linebaugh, Peter, and Rediker, Marcus. 1990. “The Many Headed Hydra: Sailors, Slaves, and the Adantic Working Class in the Eighteenth Century.” Journal of Historical Sociology 3 (09): 225–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lipsitz, George. 1998. The Possessive Investment in Whiteness: How White People Profit from Identity Politics. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.Google Scholar
Lovejoy, Paul. 1983. Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Lubiano, Wahneema. 1997. “Black Nationalism and Black Common Sense: Policing Ourselves and Others.” In The House That Race Built, ed. Lubiano, Wahneema. New York: Random House, 232–52.Google Scholar
Mandle, J. 1972. “Plantation Economy: An Essay in Definition.” Science and Society 36: 49–62.Google Scholar
Mandle, J.. 1973. The Plantation Economy, Population and Economic Change in Guyana, 1838–1960. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.Google Scholar
Martin, Susan. 1988. Palm Oil and Protest: An Economic History of the Ngwa Region, South-Eastern Nigeria, 1800–1980. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martin, Tony. 1976. Race First. The Ideological and Organizational Struggles of Marcus Garvey and the Universal Negro Improvement Association. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press.Google Scholar
Martinez-Echazabal, Lourdes. 1997. “Hybridity and Diasporization in the ‘Black Atlantic’: The Case of Chombo.” Palara 1: 117–29.Google Scholar
Martinez-Alier, Verena. 1974. Marriage, Colour, and Class in Nineteenth-Century Cuba: A Study of Racial Attitudes and Sexual Values in a Slave Society. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miguel, Pedro San. 1997. “Discurso Racial e identidad nacional: Haiti En El Imaginario Dominicano.” In La isla imaginada: historica, identidad y Utopia en La Espanola. Santo Domingo: Editioral Isla Negra and Editorial Librecia La Trinitaria.Google Scholar
Miller, Floyd. 1975. The Search for a Black Nationality: Black Emigration and Colonization, 1787–1863. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar
Mintz, Sidney. 1966. “The Plantation as a Socio-Cultural Type.” In Plantation Systems of the New World. Washington, D.C.: Pan American Union.Google Scholar
Mintz, Sidney, and Price, Richard. 1992. The Birth of African American Culture: An Anthropological Perspective. Boston: Beacon Press.Google Scholar
Mirabal, Nancy. 1995. “‘Mas que negro’: Jose Marti and the Politics of Unity.” In Jose Marti in the United States: The Florida Experience, ed. Perez, Louis Jr. Phoenix: Arizona State University.Google Scholar
Mirabal, Nancy. 1998. “Telling Silences and Making Community: Afro-Cubans and African-Americansin Ybor City and Tampa, 1899–1915.” In Between Races and Empire: African-Americans and Cubans Before the Cuban Revolution, ed. Brock, Lisa and Castenada, Digna. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 70–85.Google Scholar
Mirabal, Nancy. 1999. “De Aquí, De Allá: Race, Gender and Nation in the Making of Cuban Communities in New York and Florida, 1823–1924.” Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan.Google Scholar
Moore, Robin. 1977. Nationalizing Blackness. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.Google Scholar
Moses, Wilson Jeremiah. 1998. Afrotopia: The Roots of African American Popular History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moura, Clovis. 1959. Rebeliões da Senzala: quilombos insurreicoes guerrilhas. São Paulo: Edicoes Zumbi.Google Scholar
Moura, Clovis. 1977. O Negro, de Bom Escravo a Mau Cidadao? Rio de Janeiro: Conquista.Google Scholar
Moura, Clovis. 1983. Brasil: Raizes do Protesto Negro. São Paulo: Global Editora.Google Scholar
Mullin, Michael. 1992. Africa in America: Slave Acculturation and Resistance in the American South and the British Caribbean, 1736–1831. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar
Murphy, Joseph. [1988] 1992. Santeria: African Spirits in America. Boston: Beacon Press.Google Scholar
Murphy, Joseph. 1994. Working the Spirit: Ceremonies of the African Diaspora. Boston: Beacon Press.Google Scholar
Nagar, Richa. 1996. “The South Asian Diaspora in Tanzania: A History Retold.” Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa, and the Middle East 16: 62–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nascimento, Abdias do. 1989. Brazil: Mixture or Massacre? Essays in the Genocide of a Black People. 2d ed. Dover, Mass: Majority Press.Google ScholarPubMed
Nascimento, Abdias do. 1992. Africans in Brazil: A Pan-African Perspective. Trenton, N.J.: Africa World Press.Google Scholar
Naison, Mark. 1983. Communists in Harlem During the Depression. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar
Nina Rodrigues, Raymundo. 1932. Os Africanos no Brasil. São Paulo: Companhia Editora Nacional.Google Scholar
Nina Rodrigues, Raymundo. 1935. O Animismo Fetichista dos Negros Bahianos. Rio de Janeiro: Civilização Brasileira.Google Scholar
Niane, D. T., ed. 1984. UNESCO General History of Africa. Vol. 4. London: Heinemann.Google Scholar
Okpewho, Isidore, Davies, Carole Boyce, and Mazrui, Ali. 1998. The African Diaspora: African Origins and New World Identities. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Oliveira, Waldir Freitas, and Lima, Vivaldo da Costa, eds. 1987. Cartas de Edison Carneiro a Arthur Ramos. São Paulo: Corrupio.Google Scholar
Olwig, Karen Fog. 1985. Cultural Adaptation and Resistance on St. John: Three Centuries of Afro-Caribbean Life. Gainesville: University of Florida Press.Google Scholar
Omvedt, Gail. 1991. “The Anti-Caste Movement and the Discourse of Power.” Race and Class 33 (07–Sept): 15–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ortíz, Fernando. 1916. Hampa Afro-Cubana: Los Negroes Esclavos: Estudio Sociológico y de Derecho Público. Havana: Revista Bimestra Cubana.Google Scholar
Ortíz, Fernando. 1921. “Los cabildos afro-cubanos.” Rivista Bimestre Cubana 16 (01.–Feb.): 5–39.Google Scholar
Ortíz, Fernando. 1960. La antigua fiesta afrocubana del “Dia de Reyes. Havana: Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Departamento de Asuntos Culturales, División de PublicacionesGoogle Scholar
Ortíz, Fernando. [1947] 1995. Cuban Counterpoint: Tobacco and Sugar. Durham: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Ortíz, Fernando. [1952-55] 1996. Los instruments de la musica afrocubana. 5 vols. Madrid: Editorial Música Mundana Maqueda; Fundación Fernando Ortíz.Google Scholar
Palmer, Colin. 1998. “Defining and Studying the Modern African Diaspora.” Perspectives: American Historical Association Newsletter 36, no. 6 (1): 22–27.Google Scholar
Piedra, Jose. 1991. “Literary Whiteness and the Afro-Hispanic Difference.” In The Bounds of Race, ed. LaCapra, Dominick. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Pierson, Donald. 1967. Negroes in Brazil: A Study of Race Contact at Bahia. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press.Google Scholar
Plummer, Brenda Gayle. 1996. Rising Wind: Black Americans and U.S. Foreign Affairs, 1935–1960. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Popovic, Alexandre. 1999. The Revolt of African Slaves in Iraq in the 3rd–9th Century. Translated from the French by King, Léon. Princeton, N.J.: Markus Wiener.Google Scholar
Potkay, Adam, and Burr, Sandra, eds. 1995. Black Atlantic Writers of the Eighteenth Century. New York: St. Martin's Press.Google Scholar
Prashad, Vijay. 2000. The Karma of Brown Folk. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Price, Richard. 1983. First Time: The Historical Vision of an Afro-American People. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Quijano, Aníbal. 1992. “Colonialidad y Modernidad/Racionalidad” Perú Indígena 13 (29): 11–20 Google Scholar
Quijano, Aníbal. 1999. “The Coloniality of Power and Its Institutions.” Paper presented at the 2d annual conference of the Coloniality Working Group, 04, State University of New York at Binghamton.Google Scholar
Quijano, Aníbal, and Wallerstein, Immanuel. 1992. “Americanity as a Concept, or the Americas in the Modern World System.” International Social Science Journal 44 (134): 549–57.Google Scholar
Radhakrishnan, Rajagopalan. 1996. Diasporic Mediations: Between Home and Location. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rafael, Vicente L. 1995. Discrepant Histories: Translocal Essays on Filipino Cultures. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.Google Scholar
Rajshekar, V. T. 1995. Dalit: The Black Untouchables of India. Atlanta: Clarity Press.Google Scholar
Ramos, Arthur. 1937. As Culturas Negras no Novo Mundo. Rio de Janeiro: New World Black Cultures.Google Scholar
Ramos, Arthur. 1939. The Negro in Brazil. Washington, D.C.: Associated Press.Google Scholar
Rediker, Marcus. 1987. ‘Between the Devil and the Deep Blue Sea’: Merchant Seamen, Privates, and the Anglo-American Maritime World, 1700–1750. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Redkey, Edwin S. 1969. Black Exodus: Black Nationalist and Back-to-Africa Movements, 1890–1945. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Reid-Pharr, Robert. 1994. “Engendering the Black Atlantic.” Found Objects 4 (fall).Google Scholar
Reis, João José. 1993. Slave Rebellion in Brazil: The Muslim Uprising of 1835 in Bahia. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Robaina, Tomas Fernandez. 1990. El negro en Cuba, 1902–1958: Apuntes para la historia de la lucha contra la discriminacion racial. Havana: Editorial de Ciencias Sociales.Google Scholar
Robertson, Claire. 1996. “Africa into the Americas?: Slavery and Women, the Family, and the Gender Division of Labor.” In More than Chattel: Black Women in Slavery in the Americas, ed. Hine, Darlene Clark and Gaspar, Barry. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 3–42.Google Scholar
Robertson, Claire, and Klein, Martin, eds. 1983. Women and Slavery in Africa. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.Google Scholar
Robinson, Cedric. 1983. Black Marxism: The Making of the Black Radical Traditions. London: Zed Press.Google Scholar
Rodney, Walter. 1983. History of the Guyanese Working People, 1880–1905. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Roediger, David R. 1991. The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class. London: Verso Press.Google Scholar
Roediger, David R., ed. 1998. Black on White: Black Writers on What It Means to Be White. New York: Schocken Books.Google Scholar
Safran, William. 1991. “Diasporas in Modern Societies: Myths of Homeland and Return.” Diaspora 1 (spring): 83–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Samuels, David. 1977. “Five Afro-Caribbean Voices in American Culture, 1917–1929: Hubert H. Harrison, Wilfred A. Domingo, Richard B. Moore, Cyril Briggs and Claude McKay.” Ph.D. diss., University of Iowa.Google Scholar
Santiago Valles, Kelvin, 1994. “Subject People” and Colonial Discourses: Economic Transformation and Social Disorder in Puerto Rico, 1898–1947. Albany: State University of New York.Google Scholar
Saxton, Alexander. 1990. The Rise and Fall of the White Republic: Class Politics and Mass Culture in Nineteenth-Century America. London: Verso Press.Google Scholar
Schuler, Monica. 1980. Alas, Alas, Kongo: A Social History of Indentured African Immigration into Jamaica, 1841–1865. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Scott, Julius. 1986. “The Common Wind: Currents of Afro-American Communications in the Era of the Haitian Revolution.” Ph.D. diss., Duke University.Google Scholar
Scott, Rebecca. 1990. “Defining the Boundaries of Freedom in the World of Cane: Cuba, Brazil and Louisiana after Emancipation.” American Historical Review 99: 70–102.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Seed, Patricia. 1982. “Social Dimensions of Race: Mexico City 1753.” Hispanic American Historical Review 62 (4): 569–606.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shaw, Stephanie. 1996. What a Woman Ought to Be and Do: Black Professional Women Workers during the Jim Crow Era. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shepperson, George. 1982. ”African Diaspora: Concept and Context.” In Global Dimensions of the African Diaspora, ed. Harris, Joseph E.. Washington, D.C.: Howard University Press.Google Scholar
Singh, Nikhil. 1993. “Rethinking Politics and Culture: Social Movements and Liberation Politics in the United States, 1960–1976”. Radical History Review 57 (fall): 197–201.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spratlin, Valuarez B. 1938. Juan Latino, Slave and Humanist. New York: Spinner Press.Google Scholar
Stepan, Nancy. 1991. The Hour of Eugenics: Race, Gender and Nation in Latin America. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Stovall, Tyler. 1996. Paris Noir: African Americans in the City of Light. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.Google Scholar
Stubbs, Jean, and Perez-Sarduy, Pedro, eds. 1995. No Longer Invisible: Afro-Latin Americans Today. London: Minority Rights Group.Google Scholar
Stucky, Sterling. 1987. Slave Culture: Nationalist Theory and the Foundations of Black America. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Taylor, Therman. 1981. “Cyril Briggs and the African Blood Brotherhood: Effects of Communism on Black Nationalism, 1919–1935.” Ph.D. diss., University of California, Santa Barbara.Google Scholar
Taylor, Quintard. 1978. “Frente Negra Brasileira: The Afro-Brazilian Civil Rights Movement, 1924–1937.” Umoja: A Scholarly Journal of Black Studies 2: 25–40.Google Scholar
Terborg-Penn, Rosalyn. 1998. African American Women in the Struggle for the Vote, 1850–1920. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Thomas, Clive. 1988. Poor and the Powerless. London: Latin America Bureau.Google Scholar
Thomas, Clive. 1984. Plantations, Peasants and the State. Los Angeles and Kingston, Jamaica: Center for Afro-American Studies and Institute of Social and Economic Research.Google Scholar
Thompson, Edgar Tristram. 1966. “The Plantation as a Social System.” In Plantation Systems of the New World. Washington, D.C.: Pan American Union.Google Scholar
Thompson, Robert Farris. 1983. Flash of the Spirit: African and Afro-American Art and Philosophy. New York: Vintage Books.Google Scholar
Thompson, Vincent. 1987. The Making of the African Diaspora in the Americas, 1441–1900. White Plains, N.Y.: Longman Press.Google Scholar
Thornton, John. 1983. “Sexual Demography: The Impact of the Slave Trade on Family Structure.” In Women and Slavery in Africa, ed. Robertson, Claire and Klein, Martin. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.Google Scholar
Thornton, John. 1992. Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Tomich, Dale. 1990. Slavery in the Circuit of Sugar: Martinique and the World Economy, 1830–1848. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Trouillot, Michel-Rolph. 1995, “An Unthinkable History: The Haitian Revolution as a Non-Event.” In Silencing the Past: Power and the Production of History, ed. Trouillot, Michel-Rolph. Boston: Beacon Press.Google Scholar
Turner, Lorenzo. 1942. “Some Contacts of Brazilian ex-Slaves with Nigeria, West Africa.” Journal of Negro History 27: 55–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vass, Winifred. 1979. The Bantu Speaking Heritage of the United States. Los Angeles: Center for Afro-American Studies, University of California.Google Scholar
Vincent, Theodore. 1971. Black Power and the Garvey Movement. Berkeley, Calif.: Ramparts Press.Google Scholar
Von Eschen, Penny. 1997. Race against Empire. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Wade, Peter. 1997. Race and Ethnicity in Latin America. London: Pluto Press.Google Scholar
Wafer, Jim. 1991. The Taste of Blood: Spirit Possession in Brazilian Candomblé. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wagley, Charles. 1957. “Plantation America: A Cultural Sphere.” In Rubin, Vera, ed., Caribbean Studies: A Symposium. Kingston, Jamaica: Institute of Social and Economic Research, College of the West Indies.Google Scholar
Walcott, Rinaldo, 1996. “Going to the North: The Limits of Black Diasporic Discourse(s).” Paper presented at the American Studies Association, 10 31, Kansas City, Mo.Google Scholar
Wall, Cheryl. 1989. Changing Our Words: Essays on Criticism, Theory, and Writing by Black Women. New Brunswick, N. J.: Rutgers University Press.Google Scholar
Walvin, James. 1973. Black and White: The Negro and English Society, 1555–1945. London: Penguin Press.Google Scholar
Weisbord, Robert. 1973. Ebony Kinship: Africa, Africans, and the Afro-American. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press.Google Scholar
West, Michael. 1996. “Crossing Boundaries: Research Notes on South Asians and Africans in Africa, the Americas, and Europe.” Comparative Studies in South Asian, Africa, and the Middle East 16 (2): 48–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
White, Deborah G. 1999. Too Heavy a Load: Black Women in Defense of Themselves, 1894–1994. New York: W. W. Norton.Google Scholar
White, E. Frances. 1990. “Africa on My Mind: Gender, Counter Discourse and African-American Nationalism.” Journal of Women's History 2: 73–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whitten, Norman E., and de Friedemann, Nina S.. 1974. “La cultura negra del litoral ecuatoriano y colombiano: un modelo de adaptation ethnica.” Revista Colombiana de Antropologia 17: 75–115.Google Scholar
Whitten, Norman E., and Torres, Arlene, eds. 1998. Blackness in Latin America and Caribbean: Social Dynamics and Cultural Transformation. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Wright, Winthrop. 1990. Cafe con Leche: Race, Class, and National Image in Venezuela. Austin: University of Texas Press.Google Scholar
Zenón Cruz, Isabelo. 1974. Narciso descobre su trasero: El Negro en la Litoratura puertorriqueñna. 2 vols. Humacao, Puero Rico: Editorial Furdi.Google Scholar