Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-mwx4w Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-03T15:00:07.749Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Chapter 19 - Hepatitis C Virus Infection in Children

from Section III - Hepatitis and Immune Disorders

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 January 2021

By
James E. Squires  and
William F. Balistreri
Edited by
Frederick J. Suchy ,
Ronald J. Sokol  and
William F. Balistreri
Edited in association with
Jorge A. Bezerra ,
Cara L. Mack  and
Benjamin L. Shneider
Frederick J. Suchy
Affiliation:
University of Colorado, Children’s Hospital Colorado, Aurora
Ronald J. Sokol
Affiliation:
University of Colorado, Children’s Hospital Colorado, Aurora
William F. Balistreri
Affiliation:
Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati
Jorge A. Bezerra
Affiliation:
Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati
Cara L. Mack
Affiliation:
University of Colorado, Children’s Hospital Colorado, Aurora
Benjamin L. Shneider
Affiliation:
Texas Children’s Hospital, Houston
Get access

Summary

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is an important cause of viral hepatitis in children and the actual number of infected children is clearly underestimated. HCV infection across the pediatric age spectrum differs from perinatal acquisition to infection acquired later in life; the modes of transmission, rates of spontaneous clearance or progression of fibrosis, the potential duration of chronic infection when acquired at birth, and, significantly, available treatment options also vary [1]. The discovery of HCV using molecular cloning techniques in 1989 led directly to an initial reduction in the number of acute HCV infections, and to the establishment of detection and treatment strategies. Mirroring the IV drug abuse epidemic, there has been a significant increase in reported HCV infections across all age groups over the last decade.

Type
Chapter
Information
Liver Disease in Children , pp. 304 - 320
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2021

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Mack, CL, Gonzalez-Peralta, RP, Gupta, N, Leung, D, Narkewicz, MR, Roberts, EA, Rosenthal, P, et al. NASPGHAN practice guidelines: diagnosis and management of hepatitis C infection in infants, children, and adolescents. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2012;54:838–55.Google Scholar
Bukh, J. The history of hepatitis C virus (HCV): basic research reveals unique features in phylogeny, evolution and the viral life cycle with new perspectives for epidemic control. J Hepatol 2016;65:S2–S21.Google Scholar
Bartlett, C, Curd, A, Peckham, M, Harris, M. Visualisation and analysis of hepatitis C virus non-structural proteins using super-resolution microscopy. Sci Rep 2018;8:13604.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pileri, P, Uematsu, Y, Campagnoli, S, Galli, G, Falugi, F, Petracca, R, Weiner, AJ, et al. Binding of hepatitis C virus to CD81. Science 1998;282:938–41.Google Scholar
Urbanowicz, A, Zagozdzon, R, Ciszek, M. Modulation of the immune system in chronic hepatitis C and during antiviral interferon-free therapy. Arch Immunol Ther Exp (Warsz) 2019;67(2):79–88.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Patra, T, Ray, RB, Ray, R. Strategies to circumvent host innate immune response by hepatitis C virus. Cells 2019;8(3):274.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ciuffreda, D, Kim, AY. Update on hepatitis C virus-specific immunity. Curr Opin HIV AIDS 2011;6:559–65.Google Scholar
Heim, MH. Innate immunity and HCV. J Hepatol 2013;58:564–74.Google Scholar
Dolganiuc, A, Chang, S, Kodys, K, Mandrekar, P, Bakis, G, Cormier, M, Szabo, G. Hepatitis C virus (HCV) core protein-induced, monocyte-mediated mechanisms of reduced IFN-alpha and plasmacytoid dendritic cell loss in chronic HCV infection. J Immunol 2006;177:6758–68.Google Scholar
Shiina, M, Rehermann, B. Cell culture-produced hepatitis C virus impairs plasmacytoid dendritic cell function. Hepatology 2008;47:385–95.Google Scholar
Tseng, CT, Klimpel, GR. Binding of the hepatitis C virus envelope protein E2 to CD81 inhibits natural killer cell functions. J Exp Med 2002;195:43–9.Google Scholar
Ali, OS, Abo-Shadi, MA, Hammad, LN. The biological significance of serum complements C3 and C4 in HCV-related chronic liver diseases and hepatocellular carcinoma. Egypt J Immunol 2005;12:91–9.Google Scholar
Dumestre-Perard, C, Ponard, D, Drouet, C, Leroy, V, Zarski, JP, Dutertre, N, Colomb, MG. Complement C4 monitoring in the follow-up of chronic hepatitis C treatment. Clin Exp Immunol 2002;127:131–6.Google Scholar
Mazumdar, B, Kim, H, Meyer, K, Bose, SK, Di Bisceglie, AM, Ray, RB, Diamond, MS, et al. Hepatitis C virus infection upregulates CD55 expression on the hepatocyte surface and promotes association with virus particles. J Virol 2013;87:7902–10.Google Scholar
Gower, E, Estes, C, Blach, S, Razavi-Shearer, K, Razavi, H. Global epidemiology and genotype distribution of the hepatitis C virus infection. J Hepatol 2014;61:S45–57.Google Scholar
El-Shabrawi, MH, Kamal, NM. Burden of pediatric hepatitis C. World J Gastroenterol 2013;19:7880–8.Google Scholar
Delgado-Borrego, A, Smith, L, Jonas, MM, Hall, CA, Negre, B, Jordan, SH, Ogrodowicz, M, et al. Expected and actual case ascertainment and treatment rates for children infected with hepatitis C in Florida and the United States: epidemiologic evidence from statewide and nationwide surveys. J Pediatr 2012;161:915–21.Google Scholar
Raynes-Greenow, C, Polis, S, Elliott, E, Hardikar, W, Kesson, A, Kaldor, J, Jones, CA. Childhood hepatitis C virus infection: an Australian national surveillance study of incident cases over five years. J Paediatr Child Health 2015;51:1115–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Razavi, H, Elkhoury, AC, Elbasha, E, Estes, C, Pasini, K, Poynard, T, Kumar, R. Chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) disease burden and cost in the United States. Hepatology 2013;57:2164–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kuiken, C, Simmonds, P. Nomenclature and numbering of the hepatitis C virus. Methods Mol Biol 2009;510:33–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Liakina, V, Hamid, S, Tanaka, J, Olafsson, S, Sharara, AI, Alavian, SM, Gheorghe, L, et al. Historical epidemiology of hepatitis C virus (HCV) in select countries – volume 3. J Viral Hepat 2015;22( Suppl 4):4–20.Google Scholar
Lowe, NJ, Rizk, D, Grimes, P, Billips, M, Pincus, S. Azelaic acid 20% cream in the treatment of facial hyperpigmentation in darker-skinned patients. Clin Ther 1998;20:945–59.Google Scholar
Schwarz, KB, Gonzalez-Peralta, RP, Murray, KF, Molleston, JP, Haber, BA, Jonas, MM, Rosenthal, P, et al. The combination of ribavirin and peginterferon is superior to peginterferon and placebo for children and adolescents with chronic hepatitis C. Gastroenterology 2011;140:450–8 e451.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Prevention CfDCa. Viral hepatitis statistics and surveillance. 2013.Google Scholar
Lalloum, F, Souied, EH, Bastuji-Garin, S, Puche, N, Querques, G, Glacet-Bernard, A, Coscas, G, et al. Intravitreal ranibizumab for choroidal neovascularization complicating pathologic myopia. Retina 2010;30:399–406.Google Scholar
Benova, L, Mohamoud, YA, Calvert, C, Abu-Raddad, LJ. Vertical transmission of hepatitis C virus: systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis 2014;59:765–73.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dal Molin, G, D’Agaro, P, Ansaldi, F, Ciana, G, Fertz, C, Alberico, S, Campello, C. Mother-to-infant transmission of hepatitis C virus: rate of infection and assessment of viral load and IgM anti-HCV as risk factors. J Med Virol 2002;67:137–42.Google Scholar
European Paediatric Hepatitis CVN. A significant sex–but not elective cesarean section–effect on mother-to-child transmission of hepatitis C virus infection.J Infect Dis 2005;192:1872–9.Google Scholar
Mast, EE, Hwang, LY, Seto, DS, Nolte, FS, Nainan, OV, Wurtzel, H, Alter, MJ. Risk factors for perinatal transmission of hepatitis C virus (HCV) and the natural history of HCV infection acquired in infancy. J Infect Dis 2005;192:1880–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wen, JW, Haber, BA. Maternal-fetal transmission of hepatitis C infection: what is so special about babies? J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2014;58:278–82.Google Scholar
Garcia-Tejedor, A, Maiques-Montesinos, V, Diago-Almela, VJ, Pereda-Perez, A, Alberola-Cunat, V, Lopez-Hontangas, JL, Perales-Puchalt, A, et al. Risk factors for vertical transmission of hepatitis C virus: a single center experience with 710 HCV-infected mothers. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2015;194:173–7.Google Scholar
Conte, D, Fraquelli, M, Prati, D, Colucci, A, Minola, E. Prevalence and clinical course of chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection and rate of HCV vertical transmission in a cohort of 15,250 pregnant women. Hepatology 2000;31:751–5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Resti, M, Azzari, C, Mannelli, F, Moriondo, M, Novembre, E, de Martino, M, Vierucci, A. Mother to child transmission of hepatitis C virus: prospective study of risk factors and timing of infection in children born to women seronegative for HIV-1. Tuscany Study Group on Hepatitis C Virus Infection. BMJ 1998;317:437–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fauteux-Daniel, S, Larouche, A, Calderon, V, Boulais, J, Beland, C, Ransy, DG, Boucher, M, et al. Vertical transmission of hepatitis C virus: variable transmission bottleneck and evidence of midgestation in utero infection. J Virol 2017;91(23):e01372–17.Google Scholar
Suryaprasad, AG, White, JZ, Xu, F, Eichler, BA, Hamilton, J, Patel, A, Hamdounia, SB, et al. Emerging epidemic of hepatitis C virus infections among young nonurban persons who inject drugs in the United States, 2006–2012. Clin Infect Dis 2014;59:1411–19.Google Scholar
Kuncio, DE, Newbern, EC, Johnson, CC, Viner, KM. Failure to test and identify perinatally infected children born to hepatitis C virus-infected women. Clin Infect Dis 2016;62:980–5.Google Scholar
Chappell, CA, Hillier, SL, Crowe, D, Meyn, LA, Bogen, DL, Krans, EE. Hepatitis C virus screening among children exposed during pregnancy. Pediatrics 2018;141(6):e20173273.Google Scholar
American College of Gynecologists. ACOG Practice Bulletin No. 86: Viral hepatitis in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 2007;110:941–56.Google Scholar
Kanninen, TT, Dieterich, D, Asciutti, S. HCV vertical transmission in pregnancy: new horizons in the era of DAAs. Hepatology 2015;62:1656–8.Google Scholar
Selvapatt, N, Ward, T, Bailey, H, Bennett, H, Thorne, C, See, LM, Tudor-Williams, G, et al. Is antenatal screening for hepatitis C virus cost-effective? A decade’s experience at a London centre. J Hepatol 2015;63:797–804.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tasillo, A, Eftekhari Yazdi, G, Nolen, S, Schillie, S, Vellozzi, C, Epstein, R, Randall, L, et al. Short-term effects and long-term cost-effectiveness of universal hepatitis C testing in prenatal care. Obstet Gynecol 2019;133:289–300.Google Scholar
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Hepatitis C virus infection among adolescents and young adults: Massachusetts, 2002–2009. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2011;60:537–41.Google Scholar
Zibbell, JE, Iqbal, K, Patel, RC, Suryaprasad, A, Sanders, KJ, Moore-Moravian, L, Serrecchia, J, et al. Increases in hepatitis C virus infection related to injection drug use among persons aged <30 years – Kentucky, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia, 2006–2012. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2015;64:453–8.Google ScholarPubMed
Barritt, ASt, Lee, B, Runge, T, Schmidt, M, Jhaveri, R. Increasing prevalence of hepatitis C among hospitalized children is associated with an increase in substance abuse. J Pediatr 2018;192:159–64.Google Scholar
Abutaleb, A, Sherman, KE. A changing paradigm: management and treatment of the HCV/HIV-co-infected patient. Hepatol Int 2018;12:500–9.Google Scholar
Mallet, V, Vallet-Pichard, A, Pol, S. The impact of human immunodeficiency virus on viral hepatitis. Liver Int 2011;31(Suppl 1):135–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Indolfi, G, Bartolini, E, Serranti, D, Azzari, C, Resti, M. Hepatitis C in children co-infected with human immunodeficiency virus. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2015;61:393–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ciotti, M, D’Agostini, C, Marrone, A. Advances in the diagnosis and monitoring of hepatitis C virus infection. Gastroenterology Res 2013;6:161–70.Google Scholar
de Leuw, P, Sarrazin, C, Zeuzem, S. How to use virological tools for the optimal management of chronic hepatitis C. Liver Int 2011;31(Suppl 1):3–12.Google Scholar
Polywka, S, Pembrey, L, Tovo, PA, Newell, ML. Accuracy of HCV-RNA PCR tests for diagnosis or exclusion of vertically acquired HCV infection. J Med Virol 2006;78:305–10.Google Scholar
Easterbrook, PJ, Group WHOGD. Who to test and how to test for chronic hepatitis C infection – 2016 WHO testing guidance for low- and middle-income countries. J Hepatol 2016;65:S46–66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jonas, MM, Baron, MJ, Bresee, JS, Schneider, LC. Clinical and virologic features of hepatitis C virus infection associated with intravenous immunoglobulin. Pediatrics 1996;98:211–15.Google Scholar
Squires, RH Jr., Shneider, BL, Bucuvalas, J, Alonso, E, Sokol, RJ, Narkewicz, MR, Dhawan, A, et al. Acute liver failure in children: the first 348 patients in the Pediatric Acute Liver Failure Study Group. J Pediatr 2006;148:652–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
El-Guindi, MA. Hepatitis C viral infection in children: updated review. Pediatr Gastroenterol Hepatol Nutr 2016;19:83–95.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Santantonio, T, Sinisi, E, Guastadisegni, A, Casalino, C, Mazzola, M, Gentile, A, Leandro, G, et al. Natural course of acute hepatitis C: a long-term prospective study. Dig Liver Dis 2003;35:104–13.Google Scholar
Santantonio, T, Wiegand, J, Gerlach, JT. Acute hepatitis C: current status and remaining challenges. J Hepatol 2008;49:625–33.Google Scholar
Narkewicz, MR, Horslen, S, Hardison, RM, Shneider, BL, Rodriguez-Baez, N, Alonso, EM, Ng, VL, et al. A learning collaborative approach increases specificity of diagnosis of acute liver failure in pediatric patients. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2018;16:1801–10 e1803.Google Scholar
Davison, SM, Mieli-Vergani, G, Sira, J, Kelly, DA. Perinatal hepatitis C virus infection: diagnosis and management. Arch Dis Child 2006;91:781–5.Google Scholar
Mohan, N, Gonzalez-Peralta, RP, Fujisawa, T, Chang, MH, Heller, S, Jara, P, Kelly, D, et al. Chronic hepatitis C virus infection in children. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2010;50:123–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
European Paediatric Hepatitis CVN. Three broad modalities in the natural history of vertically acquired hepatitis C virus infection. Clin Infect Dis 2005;41:45–51.Google Scholar
Goodman, ZD, Makhlouf, HR, Liu, L, Balistreri, W, Gonzalez-Peralta, RP, Haber, B, Jonas, MM, et al. Pathology of chronic hepatitis C in children: liver biopsy findings in the Peds-C Trial. Hepatology 2008;47:836–43.Google Scholar
Turkova, A, Volynets, GV, Crichton, S, Skvortsova, TA, Panfilova, VN, Rogozina, NV, Khavkin, AI, et al. Advanced liver disease in Russian children and adolescents with chronic hepatitis C. J Viral Hepat 2019;26(7):881–92.Google Scholar
Mizuochi, T, Takano, T, Yanagi, T, Ushijima, K, Suzuki, M, Miyoshi, Y, Ito, Y, et al. Epidemiologic features of 348 children with hepatitis C virus infection over a 30-year period: a nationwide survey in Japan. J Gastroenterol 2018;53:419–26.Google Scholar
Squires, JE, Balistreri, WF. Hepatitis C virus infection in children and adolescents. Hepatol Commun 2017;1:87–98.Google Scholar
Bunchorntavakul, C, Jones, LM, Kikuchi, M, Valiga, ME, Kaplan, DE, Nunes, FA, Aytaman, A, et al. Distinct features in natural history and outcomes of acute hepatitis C. J Clin Gastroenterol 2015;49:e31–40.Google Scholar
Yeung, LT, To, T, King, SM, Roberts, EA. Spontaneous clearance of childhood hepatitis C virus infection. J Viral Hepat 2007;14:797–805.Google Scholar
Loomba, R, Rivera, MM, McBurney, R, Park, Y, Haynes-Williams, V, Rehermann, B, Alter, HJ, et al. The natural history of acute hepatitis C: clinical presentation, laboratory findings and treatment outcomes. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2011;33:559–65.Google Scholar
Maheshwari, A, Ray, S, Thuluvath, PJ. Acute hepatitis C. Lancet 2008;372:321–32.Google Scholar
Resti, M, Bortolotti, F, Vajro, P, Maggiore, G. The Committee of Hepatology of the Italian Society of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Hepatology. Guidelines for the screening and follow-up of infants born to anti-HCV positive mothers. Dig Liver Dis 2003;35:453–7.Google Scholar
Thomas, DL, Astemborski, J, Rai, RM, Anania, FA, Schaeffer, M, Galai, N, Nolt, K, et al. The natural history of hepatitis C virus infection: host, viral, and environmental factors. JAMA 2000;284:450–6.Google Scholar
Villano, SA, Vlahov, D, Nelson, KE, Cohn, S, Thomas, DL. Persistence of viremia and the importance of long-term follow-up after acute hepatitis C infection. Hepatology 1999;29:908–14.Google Scholar
Wang, CC, Krantz, E, Klarquist, J, Krows, M, McBride, L, Scott, EP, Shaw-Stiffel, T, et al. Acute hepatitis C in a contemporary US cohort: modes of acquisition and factors influencing viral clearance. J Infect Dis 2007;196:1474–82.Google Scholar
Indolfi, G, Mangone, G, Bartolini, E, Moriondo, M, Azzari, C, Resti, M. Hepatitis C viraemia after apparent spontaneous clearance in a vertically infected child. Lancet 2016;387:1967–8.Google Scholar
Iorio, R, Giannattasio, A, Sepe, A, Terracciano, LM, Vecchione, R, Vegnente, A. Chronic hepatitis C in childhood: an 18-year experience. Clin Infect Dis 2005;41:1431–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sheiko, MA, Golden-Mason, L, Giugliano, S, Hurtado, CW, Mack, CL, Narkewicz, MR, Rosen, HR. CD4+ and CD8+ T cell activation in children with hepatitis C. J Pediatr 2016;170:142–8 e141.Google Scholar
Garazzino, S, Calitri, C, Versace, A, Alfarano, A, Scolfaro, C, Bertaina, C, Vatrano, S, et al. Natural history of vertically acquired HCV infection and associated autoimmune phenomena. Eur J Pediatr 2014;173:1025–31.Google Scholar
Tovo, PA, Calitri, C, Scolfaro, C, Gabiano, C, Garazzino, S. Vertically acquired hepatitis C virus infection: correlates of transmission and disease progression. World J Gastroenterol 2016;22:1382–92.Google Scholar
Arafa, N, El Hoseiny, M, Rekacewicz, C, Bakr, I, El-Kafrawy, S, El Daly, M, Aoun, S, et al. Changing pattern of hepatitis C virus spread in rural areas of Egypt. J Hepatol 2005;43:418–24.Google Scholar
Farmand, S, Wirth, S, Loffler, H, Woltering, T, Kenzel, S, Lainka, E, Henneke, P. Spontaneous clearance of hepatitis C virus in vertically infected children. Eur J Pediatr 2012;171:253–8.Google Scholar
Serra, MA, Escudero, A, Rodriguez, F, del Olmo, JA, Rodrigo, JM. Effect of hepatitis C virus infection and abstinence from alcohol on survival in patients with alcoholic cirrhosis. J Clin Gastroenterol 2003;36:170–4.Google Scholar
Pearlman, BL, Traub, N. Sustained virologic response to antiviral therapy for chronic hepatitis C virus infection: a cure and so much more. Clin Infect Dis 2011;52:889–900.Google Scholar
Indolfi, G, Mangone, G, Bartolini, E, Nebbia, G, Calvo, PL, Moriondo, M, Tovo, PA, et al. Comparative analysis of rs12979860 SNP of the IFNL3 gene in children with hepatitis C and ethnic matched controls using 1000 Genomes Project data. PLoS One 2014;9:e85899.Google Scholar
Indolfi, G, Mangone, G, Calvo, PL, Bartolini, E, Regoli, M, Serranti, D, Calitri, C, et al. Interleukin 28B rs12979860 single-nucleotide polymorphism predicts spontaneous clearance of hepatitis C virus in children. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2014;58:666–8.Google Scholar
Ruiz-Extremera, A, Pavon-Castillero, EJ, Florido, M, Munoz de Rueda, P, Munoz-Gamez, JA, Casado, J, Carazo, A, et al. Influence of HLA class I, HLA class II and KIRs on vertical transmission and chronicity of hepatitis C virus in children. PLoS One 2017;12:e0172527.Google Scholar
Nafady, A, Nafady-Hego, H, Abdelwahab, NM, Eltellawy, RHN, Abu Faddan, NH. Peripheral lymphocytes analyses in children with chronic hepatitis C virus infection. Eur J Clin Invest 2018;48:e13004.Google Scholar
Bortolotti, F, Verucchi, G, Camma, C, Cabibbo, G, Zancan, L, Indolfi, G, Giacchino, R, et al. Long-term course of chronic hepatitis C in children: from viral clearance to end-stage liver disease. Gastroenterology 2008;134:1900–7.Google Scholar
Jonas, MM. Children with hepatitis C. Hepatology 2002;36:S173–8.Google Scholar
Lee, CK, Jonas, MM. Hepatitis C: issues in children. Gastroenterol Clin North Am 2015;44:901–9.Google Scholar
Zein, NN. Hepatitis C in children: recent advances. Curr Opin Pediatr 2007;19:570–4.Google Scholar
Casiraghi, MA, De Paschale, M, Romano, L, Biffi, R, Assi, A, Binelli, G, Zanetti, AR. Long-term outcome (35 years) of hepatitis C after acquisition of infection through mini transfusions of blood given at birth. Hepatology 2004;39:90–6.Google Scholar
Modin, L, Arshad, A, Wilkes, B, Benselin, J, Lloyd, C, Irving, WL, Kelly, DA. Epidemiology and natural history of hepatitis C virus infection among children and young people. J Hepatol 2019;70:371–8.Google Scholar
Birnbaum, AH, Shneider, BL, Moy, L. Hepatitis C in children. N Engl J Med 2000;342:290–1.Google Scholar
Guido, M, Bortolotti, F, Leandro, G, Jara, P, Hierro, L, Larrauri, J, Barbera, C, et al. Fibrosis in chronic hepatitis C acquired in infancy: is it only a matter of time? Am J Gastroenterol 2003;98:660–3.Google Scholar
Matsuoka, S, Tatara, K, Hayabuchi, Y, Taguchi, Y, Mori, K, Honda, H, Itou, S, et al. Serologic, virologic, and histologic characteristics of chronic phase hepatitis C virus disease in children infected by transfusion. Pediatrics 1994;94:919–22.Google Scholar
Minola, E, Prati, D, Suter, F, Maggiolo, F, Caprioli, F, Sonzogni, A, Fraquelli, M, et al. Age at infection affects the long-term outcome of transfusion-associated chronic hepatitis C. Blood 2002;99:4588–91.Google Scholar
Stallings-Smith, S, Krull, KR, Brinkman, TM, Hudson, MM, Ojha, RP. Long-term follow-up for incident cirrhosis among pediatric cancer survivors with hepatitis C virus infection. J Clin Virol 2015;71:18–21.Google Scholar
Maasoumy, B, Wiegand, SB, Jaroszewicz, J, Bremer, B, Lehmann, P, Deterding, K, Taranta, A, et al. Hepatitis B core-related antigen (HBcrAg) levels in the natural history of hepatitis B virus infection in a large European cohort predominantly infected with genotypes A and D. Clin Microbiol Infect 2015;21:606 e601–610.Google Scholar
Cesaro, S, Bortolotti, F, Petris, MG, Brugiolo, A, Guido, M, Carli, M. An updated follow-up of chronic hepatitis C after three decades of observation in pediatric patients cured of malignancy. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2010;55:108–12.Google Scholar
Dyal, HK, Aguilar, M, Bhuket, T, Liu, B, Holt, EW, Torres, S, Cheung, R, et al. Concurrent obesity, diabetes, and steatosis increase risk of advanced fibrosis among HCV patients: a systematic review. Dig Dis Sci 2015;60:2813–24.Google Scholar
Beech, BM, Myers, L, Beech, DJ. Hepatitis B and C infections among homeless adolescents. Fam Community Health 2002;25:28–36.Google Scholar
Murray, KF, Richardson, LP, Morishima, C, Owens, JW, Gretch, DR. Prevalence of hepatitis C virus infection and risk factors in an incarcerated juvenile population: a pilot study. Pediatrics 2003;111:153–7.Google Scholar
Page, K, Hahn, JA, Evans, J, Shiboski, S, Lum, P, Delwart, E, Tobler, L, et al. Acute hepatitis C virus infection in young adult injection drug users: a prospective study of incident infection, resolution, and reinfection. J Infect Dis 2009;200:1216–26.Google Scholar
Wise, M, Finelli, L, Sorvillo, F. Prognostic factors associated with hepatitis C disease: a case-control study utilizing U.S. multiple-cause-of-death data. Public Health Rep 2010;125:414–22.Google Scholar
Anon. Hepatitis C: global ambition, national realities. Lancet 2016;387:1970.Google Scholar
Gonzalez-Peralta, RP, Langham, MR Jr., Andres, JM, Mohan, P, Colombani, PM, Alford, MK, Schwarz, KB. Hepatocellular carcinoma in 2 young adolescents with chronic hepatitis C. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2009;48:630–5.Google Scholar
Jara, P, Resti, M, Hierro, L, Giacchino, R, Barbera, C, Zancan, L, Crivellaro, C, et al. Chronic hepatitis C virus infection in childhood: clinical patterns and evolution in 224 white children. Clin Infect Dis 2003;36:275–80.Google Scholar
Rumbo, C, Fawaz, RL, Emre, SH, Suchy, FJ, Kerkar, N, Morotti, RA, Shneider, BL. Hepatitis C in children: a quaternary referral center perspective. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2006;43:209–16.Google Scholar
Badizadegan, K, Jonas, MM, Ott, MJ, Nelson, SP, Perez-Atayde, AR. Histopathology of the liver in children with chronic hepatitis C viral infection. Hepatology 1998;28:1416–23.Google Scholar
Cacoub, P, Buggisch, P, Carrion, JA, Cooke, GS, Zignego, AL, Beckerman, R, Younossi, Z. Direct medical costs associated with the extrahepatic manifestations of hepatitis C infection in Europe. J Viral Hepat 2018;25:811–17.Google Scholar
Younossi, Z, Park, H, Henry, L, Adeyemi, A, Stepanova, M. Extrahepatic manifestations of hepatitis C: a meta-analysis of prevalence, quality of life, and economic burden. Gastroenterology 2016;150:1599–1608.Google Scholar
Zignego, AL, Ferri, C, Pileri, SA, Caini, P, Bianchi, FB. Italian Association of the Study of Liver Commission on Extrahepatic Manifestations of HCVi. Extrahepatic manifestations of hepatitis C virus infection: a general overview and guidelines for a clinical approach. Dig Liver Dis 2007;39:2–17.Google Scholar
Matsumoto, S, Nakajima, S, Nakamura, K, Etani, Y, Hirai, H, Shimizu, N, Yokoyama, H, et al. Interferon treatment on glomerulonephritis associated with hepatitis C virus. Pediatr Nephrol 2000;15:271–3.Google Scholar
Romas, E, Power, DA, Machet, D, Powell, H, d’Apice, AJ. Membranous glomerulonephritis associated with hepatitis C virus infection in an adolescent. Pathology 1994;26:399–402.Google Scholar
Sugiura, T, Yamada, T, Kimpara, Y, Fujita, N, Goto, K, Koyama, N. Effects of pegylated interferon alpha-2a on hepatitis-C-virus-associated glomerulonephritis. Pediatr Nephrol 2009;24:199–202.Google Scholar
Gehring, S, Kullmer, U, Koeppelmann, S, Gerner, P, Wintermeyer, P, Wirth, S. Prevalence of autoantibodies and the risk of autoimmune thyroid disease in children with chronic hepatitis C virus infection treated with interferon-alpha. World J Gastroenterol 2006;12:5787–92.Google Scholar
Indolfi, G, Bartolini, E, Olivito, B, Azzari, C, Resti, M. Autoimmunity and extrahepatic manifestations in treatment-naive children with chronic hepatitis C virus infection. Clin Dev Immunol 2012;2012:785627.Google Scholar
Indolfi, G, Stagi, S, Bartolini, E, Salti, R, de Martino, M, Azzari, C, Resti, M. Thyroid function and anti-thyroid autoantibodies in untreated children with vertically acquired chronic hepatitis C virus infection. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2008;68:117–21.Google Scholar
Bortolotti, F, Vajro, P, Balli, F, Giacchino, R, Crivellaro, C, Barbera, C, Cataleta, M, et al. Non-organ specific autoantibodies in children with chronic hepatitis C. J Hepatol 1996;25:614–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gregorio, GV, Pensati, P, Iorio, R, Vegnente, A, Mieli-Vergani, G, Vergani, D. Autoantibody prevalence in children with liver disease due to chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection. Clin Exp Immunol 1998;112:471–6.Google Scholar
Muratori, P, Muratori, L, Verucchi, G, Attard, L, Bianchi, FB, Lenzi, M. Non-organ-specific autoantibodies in children with chronic hepatitis C: clinical significance and impact on interferon treatment. Clin Infect Dis 2003;37:1320–6.Google Scholar
Bogdanos, DP, Mieli-Vergani, G, Vergani, D. Non-organ-specific autoantibodies in hepatitis C virus infection: do they matter? Clin Infect Dis 2005;40:508–10.Google Scholar
Delgado-Borrego, A, Jordan, SH, Negre, B, Healey, D, Lin, W, Kamegaya, Y, Christofi, M, et al. Reduction of insulin resistance with effective clearance of hepatitis C infection: results from the HALT-C trial. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2010;8:458–62.Google Scholar
Akhter, A, Said, A. Cutaneous manifestations of viral hepatitis. Curr Infect Dis Rep 2015;17:452.Google Scholar
Nydegger, A, Srivastava, A, Wake, M, Smith, AL, Hardikar, W. Health-related quality of life in children with hepatitis C acquired in the first year of life. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2008;23:226–30.Google Scholar
Rodrigue, JR, Balistreri, W, Haber, B, Jonas, MM, Mohan, P, Molleston, JP, Murray, KF, et al. Impact of hepatitis C virus infection on children and their caregivers: quality of life, cognitive, and emotional outcomes. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2009;48:341–7.Google Scholar
Boerekamps, A, De Weggheleire, A, van den Berk, GE, Lauw, FN, Claassen, MAA, Posthouwer, D, Bierman, WF, et al. Treatment of acute hepatitis C genotypes 1 and 4 with 8 weeks of grazoprevir plus elbasvir (DAHHS2): an open-label, multicentre, single-arm, phase 3b trial. Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol 2019;4:269–77.Google Scholar
Misra, S, Dieterich, DT, Saberi, B, Kushner, T. Direct-acting antiviral treatment of acute hepatitis C virus infections. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2018;16:599–610.Google Scholar
Rehermann, B. HCV in 2015: advances in hepatitis C research and treatment. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 2016;13:70–2.Google Scholar
Kwo, PY, Mantry, PS, Coakley, E, Te, HS, Vargas, HE, Brown, R Jr., Gordon, F, et al. An interferon-free antiviral regimen for HCV after liver transplantation. N Engl J Med 2014;371:2375–82.Google Scholar
Lawitz, E, Gane, E, Pearlman, B, Tam, E, Ghesquiere, W, Guyader, D, Alric, L, et al. Efficacy and safety of 12 weeks versus 18 weeks of treatment with grazoprevir (MK-5172) and elbasvir (MK-8742) with or without ribavirin for hepatitis C virus genotype 1 infection in previously untreated patients with cirrhosis and patients with previous null response with or without cirrhosis (C-WORTHY): a randomised, open-label phase 2 trial. Lancet 2015;385:1075–86.Google Scholar
Poordad, F, Hezode, C, Trinh, R, Kowdley, KV, Zeuzem, S, Agarwal, K, Shiffman, ML, et al. ABT-450/r-ombitasvir and dasabuvir with ribavirin for hepatitis C with cirrhosis. N Engl J Med 2014;370:1973–82.Google Scholar
Sulkowski, M, Hezode, C, Gerstoft, J, Vierling, JM, Mallolas, J, Pol, S, Kugelmas, M, et al. Efficacy and safety of 8 weeks versus 12 weeks of treatment with grazoprevir (MK-5172) and elbasvir (MK-8742) with or without ribavirin in patients with hepatitis C virus genotype 1 mono-infection and HIV/hepatitis C virus co-infection (C-WORTHY): a randomised, open-label phase 2 trial. Lancet 2015;385:1087–97.Google Scholar
Zeuzem, S, Jacobson, IM, Baykal, T, Marinho, RT, Poordad, F, Bourliere, M, Sulkowski, MS, et al. Retreatment of HCV with ABT-450/r-ombitasvir and dasabuvir with ribavirin. N Engl J Med 2014;370:1604–14.Google Scholar
Abdel-Hady, M, Bansal, S, Davison, SM, Brown, M, Tizzard, SA, Mulla, S, Barnes, E, et al. Treatment of chronic viral hepatitis C in children and adolescents: UK experience. Arch Dis Child 2014;99:505–10.Google Scholar
Afdhal, N, Zeuzem, S, Kwo, P, Chojkier, M, Gitlin, N, Puoti, M, Romero-Gomez, M, et al. Ledipasvir and sofosbuvir for untreated HCV genotype 1 infection. N Engl J Med 2014;370:1889–98.Google Scholar
Curry, MP, O’Leary, JG, Bzowej, N, Muir, AJ, Korenblat, KM, Fenkel, JM, Reddy, KR, et al. Sofosbuvir and velpatasvir for HCV in patients with decompensated cirrhosis. N Engl J Med 2015;373:2618–28.Google Scholar
Druyts, E, Thorlund, K, Wu, P, Kanters, S, Yaya, S, Cooper, CL, Mills, EJ. Efficacy and safety of pegylated interferon alfa-2a or alfa-2b plus ribavirin for the treatment of chronic hepatitis C in children and adolescents: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis 2013;56:961–7.Google Scholar
Feld, JJ, Jacobson, IM, Hezode, C, Asselah, T, Ruane, PJ, Gruener, N, Abergel, A, et al. Sofosbuvir and velpatasvir for HCV genotype 1, 2, 4, 5, and 6 infection. N Engl J Med 2015;373:2599–607.Google Scholar
Foster, GR, Afdhal, N, Roberts, SK, Brau, N, Gane, EJ, Pianko, S, Lawitz, E, et al. Sofosbuvir and velpatasvir for HCV genotype 2 and 3 infection. N Engl J Med 2015;373:2608–17.Google Scholar
Gane, EJ, Stedman, CA, Hyland, RH, Ding, X, Svarovskaia, E, Symonds, WT, Hindes, RG, et al. Nucleotide polymerase inhibitor sofosbuvir plus ribavirin for hepatitis C. N Engl J Med 2013;368:34–44.Google Scholar
Jara, P, Hierro, L, de la Vega, A, Diaz, C, Camarena, C, Frauca, E, Minos-Bartolo, G, et al. Efficacy and safety of peginterferon-alpha2b and ribavirin combination therapy in children with chronic hepatitis C infection. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2008;27:142–8.Google Scholar
Lawitz, E, Poordad, FF, Pang, PS, Hyland, RH, Ding, X, Mo, H, Symonds, WT, et al. Sofosbuvir and ledipasvir fixed-dose combination with and without ribavirin in treatment-naive and previously treated patients with genotype 1 hepatitis C virus infection (LONESTAR): an open-label, randomised, phase 2 trial. Lancet 2014;383:515–23.Google Scholar
Pawlotsky, JM. New hepatitis C therapies: the toolbox, strategies, and challenges. Gastroenterology 2014;146:1176–92.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wirth, S, Ribes-Koninckx, C, Calzado, MA, Bortolotti, F, Zancan, L, Jara, P, Shelton, M, et al. High sustained virologic response rates in children with chronic hepatitis C receiving peginterferon alfa-2b plus ribavirin. J Hepatol 2010;52:501–7.Google Scholar
Wisniewska-Ligier, M, Pawlowska, M, Pilarczyk, M, Halota, W, Wozniakowska-Gesicka, T. Efficacy of pegylated interferon alpha-2b and ribavirin in chronic hepatitis C virus (genotypes 1 and 4) infection. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2013;57:694–9.Google Scholar
Gonzalez-Peralta, RP, Kelly, DA, Haber, B, Molleston, J, Murray, KF, Jonas, MM, Shelton, M, et al. Interferon alfa-2b in combination with ribavirin for the treatment of chronic hepatitis C in children: efficacy, safety, and pharmacokinetics. Hepatology 2005;42:1010–18.Google Scholar
Sokal, EM, Bourgois, A, Stephenne, X, Silveira, T, Porta, G, Gardovska, D, Fischler, B, et al. Peginterferon alfa-2a plus ribavirin for chronic hepatitis C virus infection in children and adolescents. J Hepatol 2010;52:827–31.Google Scholar
Suzuki, M, Tajiri, H, Tanaka, Y, Takano, T, Miyoshi, Y, Murakami, J, Shimizu, T, et al. Peginterferon therapy in children with chronic hepatitis C: a nationwide, multicenter study in Japan, 2004–2013. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2016;63:88–93.Google Scholar
Wirth, S, Lang, T, Gehring, S, Gerner, P. Recombinant alfa-interferon plus ribavirin therapy in children and adolescents with chronic hepatitis C. Hepatology 2002;36:1280–4.Google Scholar
Wirth, S, Pieper-Boustani, H, Lang, T, Ballauff, A, Kullmer, U, Gerner, P, Wintermeyer, P, et al. Peginterferon alfa-2b plus ribavirin treatment in children and adolescents with chronic hepatitis C. Hepatology 2005;41:1013–18.Google Scholar
Jonas, MM, Balistreri, W, Gonzalez-Peralta, RP, Haber, B, Lobritto, S, Mohan, P, Molleston, JP, et al. Pegylated interferon for chronic hepatitis C in children affects growth and body composition: results from the pediatric study of hepatitis C (PEDS-C) trial. Hepatology 2012;56:523–31.Google Scholar
Jonas, MM, Schwarz, KB, Gonzalez-Peralta, R, Lobritto, S, Molleston, JP, Murray, KF, Rosenthal, P, et al. Long-term growth outcomes in children treated for chronic hepatitis C. J Pediatr 2014;165:1252–4.Google Scholar
Granot, E, Sokal, EM. Hepatitis C virus in children: deferring treatment in expectation of direct-acting antiviral agents. Isr Med Assoc J 2015;17:707–11.Google Scholar
Schwarz, KB, Molleston, JP, Jonas, MM, Wen, J, Murray, KF, Rosenthal, P, Gonzalez-Peralta, RP, et al. Durability of response in children treated with pegylated interferon alfa [corrected] 2a +/- ribavirin for chronic hepatitis C. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2016;62:93–6.Google Scholar
Zhong, YW, Zhang, HF, Shi, YM, Li, YL, Chu, F, Xu, ZQ, Chen, DW, et al. IL28B SNP rs12979860 is the critical predictor for sustained viral response in Chinese children aged 1 to 6 years with chronic hepatitis C. Int J Biol Sci 2016;12:1357–62.Google Scholar
Zhu, SS, Zeng, QL, Dong, Y, Xu, ZQ, Wang, LM, Chen, DW, Gan, Y, et al. Interferon-alpha plus ribavirin yields 98% sustained virologic response in children aged 1–5 years with iatrogenic chronic hepatitis C. Hepatol Int 2015;9:578–85.Google Scholar
Balistreri, WF, Murray, KF, Rosenthal, P, Bansal, S, Chuan-Hao, L, Kersey, K, Massetto, B, et al. The safety and effectiveness of ledipasvir-sofosbuvir in adolescents 12 to 17 years old with hepatitis C virus genotype 1 infection. Hepatology 2017;66(2):371–8.Google Scholar
Wirth, S, Rosenthal, P, Gonzalez-Peralta, RP, Jonas, MM, Balistreri, WF, Lin, CH, Hardikar, W, et al. Sofosbuvir and ribavirin in adolescents 12–17 years old with hepatitis C virus genotype 2 or 3 infection. Hepatology 2017;66:1102–10.Google Scholar
Indolfi, G, Hierro, L, Dezsofi, A, Jahnel, J, Debray, D, Hadzic, N, Czubkowski, P, et al. Treatment of chronic hepatitis C virus infection in children: a position paper by the Hepatology Committee of the European Society of Paediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2018;66:505–15.Google Scholar
Nguyen, J, Barritt, ASt, Jhaveri, R. Cost effectiveness of early treatment with direct-acting antiviral therapy in adolescent patients with hepatitis C virus infection. J Pediatr 2019;207:90–6.Google Scholar
Leung, DH, Squires, JE, Jhaveri, R, Kerkar, N, Lin, CH, Mohan, P, Murray, KF, Gonzalez-Peralta, RP, Roberts, EA, Sundaram, SS. Hepatitis C in 2020: A North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition Position Paper.J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2020 Sep;71(3):407–417.Google Scholar
The European Association for the Study of the Liver. EASL Clinical Practice Guidelines: management of hepatitis C virus infection. J Hepatol 2014;60:392–420.Google Scholar
Panel, AIHG. Hepatitis C guidance: AASLD-IDSA recommendations for testing, managing, and treating adults infected with hepatitis C virus. Hepatology 2015;62:932–54.Google Scholar
Poynard, T, Morra, R, Halfon, P, Castera, L, Ratziu, V, Imbert-Bismut, F, Naveau, S, et al. Meta-analyses of FibroTest diagnostic value in chronic liver disease. BMC Gastroenterol 2007;7:40.Google Scholar
Steadman, R, Myers, RP, Leggett, L, Lorenzetti, D, Noseworthy, T, Rose, S, Sutherland, L, et al. A health technology assessment of transient elastography in adult liver disease. Can J Gastroenterol 2013;27:149–58.Google Scholar
Tsochatzis, EA, Gurusamy, KS, Ntaoula, S, Cholongitas, E, Davidson, BR, Burroughs, AK. Elastography for the diagnosis of severity of fibrosis in chronic liver disease: a meta-analysis of diagnostic accuracy. J Hepatol 2011;54:650–9.Google Scholar
Poynard, T, Moussalli, J, Munteanu, M, Thabut, D, Lebray, P, Rudler, M, Ngo, Y, et al. Slow regression of liver fibrosis presumed by repeated biomarkers after virological cure in patients with chronic hepatitis C. J Hepatol 2013;59:675–83.Google Scholar
Poynard, T, Munteanu, M, Deckmyn, O, Ngo, Y, Drane, F, Castille, JM, Housset, C, et al. Validation of liver fibrosis biomarker (FibroTest) for assessing liver fibrosis progression: proof of concept and first application in a large population. J Hepatol 2012;57:541–8.Google Scholar
Poynard, T, Ngo, Y, Munteanu, M, Thabut, D, Massard, J, Moussalli, J, Varaud, A, et al. Biomarkers of liver injury for hepatitis clinical trials: a meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Antivir Ther 2010;15:617–31.Google Scholar
Poynard, T, Vergniol, J, Ngo, Y, Foucher, J, Munteanu, M, Merrouche, W, Colombo, M, et al. Staging chronic hepatitis C in seven categories using fibrosis biomarker (FibroTest) and transient elastography (FibroScan(R)). J Hepatol 2014;60:706–14.Google Scholar
Vergniol, J, Foucher, J, Terrebonne, E, Bernard, PH, le Bail, B, Merrouche, W, Couzigou, P, et al. Noninvasive tests for fibrosis and liver stiffness predict 5-year outcomes of patients with chronic hepatitis C. Gastroenterology 2011;140:1970–9, e1971–3.Google Scholar
Gupta, M, Bahirwani, R, Levine, MH, Malik, S, Goldberg, D, Reddy, KR, Shaked, A. Outcomes in pediatric hepatitis C transplant recipients: analysis of the UNOS database. Pediatr Transplant 2015;19:153–63.Google Scholar
Smith, BD, Morgan, RL, Beckett, GA, Falck-Ytter, Y, Holtzman, D, Teo, CG, Jewett, A, et al. Recommendations for the identification of chronic hepatitis C virus infection among persons born during 1945–1965. MMWR Recomm Rep 2012;61:1–32.Google Scholar
El-Kamary, SS, Serwint, JR, Joffe, A, Santosham, M, Duggan, AK. Prevalence of hepatitis C virus infection in urban children. J Pediatr 2003;143:54–9.Google Scholar
Trucchi, C, Orsi, A, Alicino, C, Sticchi, L, Icardi, G, Ansaldi, F. State of the art, unresolved issues, and future research directions in the fight against hepatitis C virus: perspectives for screening, diagnostics of resistances, and immunization. J Immunol Res 2016;2016:1412840.Google Scholar
Snijdewind, IJ, Smit, C, Schutten, M, Nellen, FJ, Kroon, FP, Reiss, P, van der Ende, ME. Low mother-to-child-transmission rate of hepatitis C virus in cART treated HIV-1 infected mothers. J Clin Virol 2015;68:11–15.Google Scholar
Brown, RS Jr., McMahon, BJ, Lok, AS, Wong, JB, Ahmed, AT, Mouchli, MA, Wang, Z, et al. Antiviral therapy in chronic hepatitis B viral infection during pregnancy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Hepatology 2016;63:319–33.Google Scholar
Moradpour, D, Grakoui, A, Manns, MP. Future landscape of hepatitis C research – basic, translational and clinical perspectives. J Hepatol 2016;65:S143–55.Google Scholar
Pierce, BG, Keck, ZY, Lau, P, Fauvelle, C, Gowthaman, R, Baumert, TF, Fuerst, TR, et al. Global mapping of antibody recognition of the hepatitis C virus E2 glycoprotein: implications for vaccine design. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2016;113(45):E6946–54..Google Scholar
Folgori, A, Capone, S, Ruggeri, L, Meola, A, Sporeno, E, Ercole, BB, Pezzanera, M, et al. A T-cell HCV vaccine eliciting effective immunity against heterologous virus challenge in chimpanzees. Nat Med 2006;12:190–7.Google Scholar
Yokokawa, H, Higashino, A, Suzuki, S, Moriyama, M, Nakamura, N, Suzuki, T, Suzuki, R, et al. Induction of humoural and cellular immunity by immunisation with HCV particle vaccine in a non-human primate model. Gut 2018;67(2):372–9.Google Scholar
Swadling, L, Capone, S, Antrobus, RD, Brown, A, Richardson, R, Newell, EW, Halliday, J, et al. A human vaccine strategy based on chimpanzee adenoviral and MVA vectors that primes, boosts, and sustains functional HCV-specific T cell memory. Sci Transl Med 2014;6:261ra153.Google Scholar
Graf Einsiedel, H, Christiansen, H, Wiegand, J. Eight weeks treatment with sofosbuvir/ledipasvir in a 4-year-old child with chronic hepatitis C virus genotype 1 infection. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2016;35:1373.Google Scholar
Hashmi, MA, Cheema, HA. Effectiveness and safety of sofosbuvir in treatment-naive children with hepatitis C infection. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak 2017;27:423–6.Google Scholar
Murray, KF, Balistreri, WF, Bansal, S, Whitworth, S, Evans, HM, Gonzalez-Peralta, RP, Wen, J, et al. Safety and efficacy of ledipasvir-sofosbuvir with or without ribavirin for chronic hepatitis C in children aged 6–11. Hepatology 2018;68:2158–66.Google Scholar
El-Karaksy, H, Mogahed, EA, Abdullatif, H, Ghobrial, C, El-Raziky, MS, El-Koofy, N, El-Shabrawi, M, et al. Sustained viral response in genotype 4 chronic hepatitis C virus-infected children and adolescents treated with sofosbuvir/ledipasvir. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2018;67:626–30.Google Scholar
Leung, DH, Wirth, S, Yao, BB, Viani, RM, Gonzalez-Peralta, RP, Jonas, MM, Lobritto, SJ, et al. Ombitasvir/paritaprevir/ritonavir with or without dasabuvir and with or without ribavirin for adolescents with HCV genotype 1 or 4. Hepatol Commun 2018;2:1311–19.Google Scholar
Alkaaby, BA, Al-Ethawi, AE. The effectiveness of oral antiviral (sofosbuvir/ledipasvir) in treating children with HCV infection. Pak J Med Sci 2018;34:1353–6.Google Scholar
Tucci, F, Calbi, V, Barzaghi, F, Migliavacca, M, Ferrua, F, Bernardo, ME, Canarutto, D, et al. Successful treatment with ledipasvir/sofosbuvir in an infant with severe combined immunodeficiency caused by adenosine deaminase deficiency with HCV allowed gene therapy with strimvelis. Hepatology 2018;68:2434–7.Google Scholar
El-Shabrawi, MHF, Kamal, NM, El-Khayat, HR, Kamal, EM, Abdel Gawad, M, Yakoot, M. A pilot single arm observational study of sofosbuvir/ledipasvir (200 + 45 mg) in 6- to 12-year old children. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2018;47:1699–704.Google Scholar
Quintero, J, Juamperez, J, Julio, E, Cabello, V, Mercadal-Hally, M, Soler-Palacin, P, Segarra, O, et al. Ledipasvir/sofosbuvir combination for chronic hepatitis C infection in children and adolescents. An Pediatr 2019;90:141–7.Google Scholar
Abdel Ghaffar, TY, El Naghi, S, Abdel Gawad, M, Helmy, S, Abdel Ghaffar, A, Yousef, M, Moafy, M. Safety and efficacy of combined sofosbuvir/daclatasvir treatment of children and adolescents with chronic hepatitis C genotype 4. J Viral Hepat 2019;26:263–70.Google Scholar
Fouad, HM, Ahmed Mohamed, A, Sabry, M, Abdel Aziz, H, Eysa, B, Rabea, M. The effectiveness of ledipasvir/sofosbuvir in youth with genotype 4 hepatitis C virus: a single Egyptian center study. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2019;38:22–5.Google Scholar
Sofosbuvir, and Ribavirin, Therapy for Children Aged 3 to <12 Years With Hepatitis C Virus Genotype 2 or 3 Infection. Rosenthal P, Schwarz KB, Gonzalez-Peralta RP, Lin CH, Kelly DA, Nightingale S, Balistreri WF, Bansal S, Jonas MM, Massetto B, Brainard DM, Hsueh CH, Shao J, Parhy B, Davison S, Feiterna-Sperling C, Gillis LA, Indolfi G, Sokal EM, Murray KF, Wirth S.Hepatology. 2020 71(1):31–43.Google Scholar
Schwarz, KB RP, Murray, KF, Honegger, JR, Hardikar, W, Hague, R, Mittal, N, Massetto, B, Brainard, D, Begley, R, Parhy, B, Shao, J, Narkewicz, MR, Rao, GS, Whitworth, S, Bansal, S, Balistreri, WB. Ledipasvir/sofosbuvir for 12 weeks is safe and effective in children 3 to &lt;6 years old with chronic hepatitis C virus infection. Hepatology 2020;71(2):422–30.Google Scholar
Guyatt, GH, Oxman, AD, Vist, GE, Kunz, R, Falck-Ytter, Y, Alonso-Coello, P, Schunemann, HJ, et al. GRADE: an emerging consensus on rating quality of evidence and strength of recommendations. BMJ 2008;336:924–6.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×