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Index

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 December 2021

Edited by
Michael N. Barnett ,
Jon C. W. Pevehouse  and
Kal Raustiala
Michael N. Barnett
Affiliation:
George Washington University, Washington DC
Jon C. W. Pevehouse
Affiliation:
University of Wisconsin, Madison
Kal Raustiala
Affiliation:
University of California, Los Angeles, School of Law

Summary

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Chapter
Information
Global Governance in a World of Change , pp. 367 - 382
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2021
Creative Commons
Creative Common License - CCCreative Common License - BYCreative Common License - NCCreative Common License - ND
This content is Open Access and distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution licence CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/cclicenses/

Index

Note: Page numbers with the suffix n indicate a footnote and those in bold indicate figures or tables.

actors, 6, 21–22, 26–27, 164–166, 350
Ador, Gustave, 269–270
agency, and contingency, 352–353
aid, 161, 169, 256–257 see also humanitarian assistance
aid workers, 156–158, 160, 162–163, 172–173
aluminum sector, 84–85, 92–93
American National Standards Institute (ANSI), 51–52, 60
anarchy, 342–343, 343n
anti-terrorism operations, 216, 219, 224, 226–230
antitrust laws and cartels, 84–85, 91–92, 98–99
Appia, Louis, 267
arbitration, 104 see also international commercial arbitration (ICA)
armed conflict see conflict management
armed forces see military forces
arms manufacturers, 52–53, 56, 63, 65
Arms Trade Treaty (ATT), 54–55, 66
Asia-Pacific Partnership, 296
Asian Development Bank, 328–329
Australia, firearms laws, 53–54, 61–62
Bank for International Settlements (BIS), 82
banks see central banks
Basel Committee on Banking Supervision (BCBS), 97
Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (BMGF), 22, 239, 243, 245
Bourdieu, Pierre, 35, 156, 162, 251
Brazil
arms control, 65–66
climate change, 119
and global trade regime, 137–138
opinion surveys, 324–327, 326
Bretton Woods, 89–91, 346
Brexit, 26
BRICS (Brazil/Russia/India/China/South Africa)
and climate change governance, 117
governance representation demands, 313–314
informal clubs, 314–315
rising power, 19
bureaucracy, 12, 69–70, 216–218
Bush, George H.W., 293
Bush, George W., 204–205
Canada, trade agreements, 140–141, 145
capital, 156, 162–164
cultural capital, 172–173
economic capital, 169–170
social capital, 165–166, 172
symbolic capital, 170–171
capitalism, 20
carbon cap and trade, 14, 126
carbon markets, 111–112, 115, 120–121, 125–126, 298
cartels
definition, 83
destruction, 102–104
informal hierarchy, 13
and market stability, 88
postwar, 91–95, 98–100
US anti-trust laws and cartels, 84–85, 91–92, 98–99
causes of change see drivers of change
Center for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces, 71–72
central banks
domestic economic requirements, 98
financial crisis cooperation, 97
and the gold standard, 79–83, 88–89
government support, 103
interwar era, 80–82
networked cooperation, 81, 83, 96, 102
pre-war era, 79
private financial diplomacy, 81
regulatory and independent role, 104
China
carbon market, 115
China–US climate change commitment, 117–118
emissions, 113
and global trade regime, 137
health and humanitarian aid, 256
regional trade agreements, 138–139
rising power, 19, 314
civilian protection, 223, 224–226, 224, 228, 271
clean energy governance
Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), 111–112, 298
consolidation, 291
decentralized and hybrid nature, 37, 289, 295, 302–304
definitions, 290
early interest, 290–291
entrepreneurship, 37, 298, 303–304
expertise, 300, 303
geopolitics, 302–303
market mechanisms, 14, 298–299
and markets, 298
network-based collaboration, 291, 294–298, 295, 304
non-state and sub-state actors, 297–298
North–South inequities, 305–306
stalemate in climate cooperation, 291, 294
state actors, 293, 300, 305–306
transnational initiatives, 295–296, 295, 300–302
climate change, affects those least responsible, 110
climate change governance
carbon cap and trade, 14, 126
carbon markets, 111–112, 115, 120–121, 125–126
China–US commitment, 117–118
drivers for change, 109
emissions reduction targets, 111, 113–114, 119, 123, 125–126
evaluation, 125
evolving modes of governance, 33, 109–111, 115
and experts, 118
Global Environment Facility, 112–113, 293
global rationalization, 109, 118–121
Green Climate Fund, 112–113
market mode of governance, 116
market-based mechanisms, 122
networked governance, 112–114, 121
new governance shortcomings, 125–126
non-state and subnational actors, 114, 121–123, 125
Paris Agreement compared with Kyoto Protocol, 113–115 see also Kyoto Protocol (1997); Paris Agreement (2016)
Climate Investment Facility (CIF), 295, 298–299
Climate Technology Centre and Network, 298
Cold War, 20, 50, 94, 238
commodity agreements, 93–94 see also cartels
Common but differentiated responsibility (CBDR), 116–117
communications technology
early costliness and unreliability, 187–188
health implications, 250
and the internet, 193–194, 197
and new forms of governance, 24–25
competition laws, 99 see also cartels
complex governance see hybrid mode of governance
conflict management
Afghanistan experience, 226
An Agenda for Peace (1992), 223
anti-terrorism operations, 219, 224, 226–230
civilian protection, 223, 224–226, 224, 228, 271
and climate change, 110
and development actors, 283–284
diversity of initiatives, 277, 281–282
expert professionals, 35–36, 217, 219, 222, 229–230
governance origins, 266–268
hierarchical/networked governance, 15, 268
IO concern, 220–221
mandate complexity, 222
military deployment, 216, 227–229
non-international armed conflicts, 276–277
non-state actors, 216–217, 219, 221–222, 226
peace building, 223
rights protection, 223–225, 224, 270–271
UN crisis missions, 223–224
Western states, 226–228 see also Geneva Conventions; International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC); international humanitarian law (IHL); private military and security companies (PMSCs)
Congo, UN peace operation (ONUC), 223
contingency, and agency, 352–353
Covid-19
development aid challenges, 174
effect on global health governance, 251, 254
governance limitations, 338–339
origins, 243–244, 255
pluralization of actors, 350
state centrality, 244
Trump response, 360
WHO role, 243–244
cultural capital, 156, 162–163, 172–173
currencies
fixed exchange rates, 90–91
gold standard, 79–83, 88–89
customary law, 272
Davison, Henry P., 269
De Beers, 84, 99–100
decentralization
clean energy governance, 37, 289, 295, 302–304
fragile state governance, 227–228
growing trend, 302–303
and informal governance, 197, 199–200, 210
transgovernmental networks, 288–289
UN peacekeeping, 227–228 see also hybrid mode of governance; network mode of governance
democratization, 102, 315–316
demographic change, health implications, 248–249
developing countries
clean energy governance, 301
climate regime exemptions, 111, 120
commodity agreements, 93–94
and GATT, 132–133, 140
network and market power, 137–138
and supply chains, 144
and trade negotiations, 132–133, 136–137 see also Southern actors
development assistance, for health (DAH), 240, 256, 258
diamond cartel, 84, 99–100
diplomacy
early communication challenges, 187–188
face-to-face, 184, 189n
information needs, 35, 184
permanent missions/delegations, 190, 192
private financial diplomacy, 81
virtual diplomacy, 189n
diplomatic hubs
foreign ministries (FMs), 190, 191, 191, 188–192
formal intergovernmental organizations (FIGOs), 189, 188–192
Hierarchy plus Networks (HpN) model, 183–185, 192–194, 197–199, 198, 204
hub-and-spokes structure, 188–192, 189, 191, 203
League of Nations, 192
disease
Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI), 253
Ebola, 242, 254
Global Fund to Fight HIV/AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria, 239–242
HIV/AIDS, 239–240, 250–251, 254
International Health Regulations (IHR), 247, 254
International Sanitary Convention (1892), 236–237
malaria and tuberculosis, 240–242, 254
outbreak preparedness, 258 see also Covid-19
Doha Round, 20, 22–23, 136–137
domestic politics, 25–26, 149–150, 317–319, 349
donors, 161, 169–170
drivers of change, 6, 17–27, 78–79, 104, 109, 312–319, 348–353
Dufour, Guillaume-Henri, 267
Dunant, Henry, 265, 267
Duterte, Rodrigo, 318
Ebola, 242, 254
economic change, 6, 20
economic power, 252
effective governance
changes, 215
complex governance mode, 67–69, 68
core functions, 15–16
definition, 27–28
and ethics, 28–31
evaluation, 27–28
health governance, 254–257
humanitarian governance critique, 167–168
and legitimacy, 70–72
stakeholder inclusion, 51–52, 68–70, 252–254, 317 see also legitimacy
Eisenhower, Dwight D., 195
electrical equipment sector, 84
electricity, E-7 (Global Sustainable Electricity Partnership), 295
elites
common interests, 161
control of capital, 156, 162–164
exclusive clubs, 164–166
humanitarian governance, 161–162, 166–167
opinion surveys, 324–327, 326–327
emergency aid, 158–159, 169 see also humanitarian governance
energy see clean energy governance; oil sector; renewable energy
Energy Sector Management Assistance Program (ESMAP), 292–293
environment
common but differentiated responsibility (CBDR), 116–117
liberal environmentalism, 122
ozone regime, 120
and trade, 145–148 see also clean energy governance; climate change governance
ethics, and effective governance, 28–31
European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), 3–4, 92
European Community/Union (EC/EU)
arms control measures, 64
banal authority, 69–70
Brexit, 318
and climate change, 119, 126
competition policy, 93
democratic deficit, 316
governance, 12–13
humanitarian aid, 161
public trust, 322, 323
renewable energy, 126, 294
Yugoslavia conflict and human rights, 146–147
evaluation, climate change governance, 125
experimentalist governance, 124
expertise
aid workers, 160, 162–163, 173
clean energy governance, 300, 303
climate change governance, 118
conflict management, 35–36, 217, 219, 222, 229–230
cultural capital, 156, 162–163
as driver of change, 6
global governance, 9–10
global health, 252
humanitarian governance, 160, 162–163, 173
ICRC, 282–283
International Energy Agency, 299
international humanitarian law, 282–283
PSI’s Operational Experts Group (OEG), 205–208
valued over lived knowledge, 24
field theory, 159–161
FIGOs see formal intergovernmental organizations (FIGOs)
finance see central banks; currencies
financial crises, 97–98
Financial Stability Board, 98, 102
foreign ministries (FMs)
diminished role, 199–200, 209–210
as diplomatic hubs, 188–192, 189, 190, 191, 191
IIGO role, 198–199, 204, 204n
Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), 324–326, 325
formal intergovernmental organizations (FIGOs)
bureaucratization and formality, 201, 202
changing number, 7–9, 8, 182
compared with IIGOs, 196, 201, 203, 202
declining role, 183, 209–210
as diplomatic hubs, 188–192, 189
economies of scale, 190
IIGO interactions, 199
permanent missions/delegations, 190, 192
technical and political information, 35, 184 see also informal intergovernmental organizations (IIGOs); international organizations (IOs)
fragile state governance
Afghanistan, 226
anti-terrorism operations, 219, 224, 226–228
civilian protection, 25–26, 223, 224, 224–226, 228, 271
governance, 214–215, 229–230
hierarchical/network hybrid governance, 222, 228–230
IO jurisdiction, 219–221
issue-specific professional networks, 35–36, 214–217, 219–220, 222, 227–230
mandate complexity, 222
national state strategies, 219, 221
networked decentralization, 227–228
new actors and governance tools, 214–216
non-state actors, 221–222
rights protection, 223–224, 224
shadow of hierarchy, 219
and UN peacekeeping, 219 see also conflict management
France, public trust in the EU, 323
Friends of the Earth, 121
G7/G8, 208–209
G20
elite opinion, 324–326, 325
financial policy coordination, 98
regional representation, 314
Galapagos Islands, 299–300
Gates Foundation (BMGF), 22, 239, 243, 245
GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade)
Article XXIV and Enabling Clause, 139–141
and developing countries, 132–133, 140
dispute mechanism, 133, 147
hierarchical governance, 131–132
legitimacy concerns, 313
negotiations, 22–23
Uruguay Round, 136, 139
Gavi (Global Alliance on Vaccines), 2–3, 239–240, 242
Geneva Conventions, 265–268, 271–272, 281–282
Protocols, 270–271, 274, 282
geopolitics
in clean energy governance, 302–303
in climate change governance, 109, 116–118, 294
as driver of change, 6, 19–20, 313–315, 348–349
post-Cold War, 50, 52–53, 55
in trade regime, 135–139
Germany
Nazi regime cartel agreements, 91–92
opinion surveys, 321, 322–323, 324–327, 326
global economic governance
complex governance, 345
cross-border flow complexity, 101–102
democratization, 102
and international markets, 103–104
interwar years, 33, 78–83, 88–89
networked and market governance, 96, 102
normative challenges, 104–105
shadow of hierarchy, 103
Global Environment Facility, 112, 293
Global Financing Facility for Women and Children’s Health, 253
Global Fund to Fight HIV/AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria, 239–242, 247
global governance
absence of governance, 347–348
agency and contingency, 352–353
contemporary weaknesses, 4, 338–339
core functions, 15–16
definition, 1–3, 10
diversity and complexity, 1–3, 15, 288, 305, 341–342
drivers of change, 6, 17–27, 78–79, 104, 109, 312–319, 350–353
fragmentation, 339–340
future prospects, 361
norms of governance, 315–317, 329
“open system,” 215, 218–219
policy problem areas (low-hanging fruit), 22–23, 330, 351
postwar ambition and vision, 3–4, 216–217
postwar modernism, 1
power, 251–252, 252 see also decentralization; effective governance; modes of governance
global health, 234–235
global health governance (GHG)
actor multiplicity, 251–252, 350
centralization, 236
complex adaptive system, 245–246, 346–347
cross-border externalities, 255
definition, 235
effectiveness, 254–257
evolution, 36
finance, 239–240, 242, 244, 247
and globalization, 248
goal-setting and monitoring, 257
hierarchy elements, 245
International Health Regulations, 247, 254
low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), 240, 242
market elements, 245–246
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), 239–241
network elements, 235–236, 246
non-state actors, 237–238, 240, 242
North–South conflicts, 240–241
post-1992 expansion, 238–241
postwar, 237–238
power, 251–252, 252
power disparities, 245
pre-war, 236–237
and the private sector, 249
public goods provision, 256
stakeholder legitimacy, 252–254
state role, 240–241, 244
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), 241–242, 247, 257–258
UN role, 247
universal health coverage (UHC), 245, 257–258
global rationalization see rationalization
global supply chain trade, 143–145
global value chains, 143–145
global warming see climate change; climate change governance
globalization
and domestic discontent, 317–319
driver of governance change, 78–79, 104, 317–319
health challenges, 235, 248
and ICA (international commercial arbitration), 100–101
public opposition, 136, 149–150
gold standard, 79–83, 88–89
Gove, Michael, 318
governance theory, changing ideologies, 6
Greece, financial adjustment program, 97–98
Green Climate Fund, 112–113
Rio Conventions Joint Liaison Group, 112–113
Greenhouse Gas Protocol (2010), 125
Greenpeace, 121
gun control see small arms governance
Guterres, Antonio, 338–339, 361
Hague Law, 273–274
Havana Charter, 140
heads of government (HOGs)
definition, 185n
face-to-face diplomacy, 184
information needs, 184
political interactions, 184–185, 198, 198
Proliferation Security Initiative, 207–209
transport and communications improvements, 195–197
health
challenges, 255, 234
effect of demographic change, 248–249
mortality improvements, 240
non-communicable diseases (NCDs), 248–249, 258
and technological change, 240, 249–250 see also disease; global health governance (GHG)
heuristics, 330–332
hierarchical mode of governance
Bretton Woods institutions, 89–91
cartels, 84–85
characteristics, 4–6, 12–13
compared with markets and networks, 30–31
dis/advantages, 30–31, 67
fragile states, 215–216
global governance, 346, 343
global health governance, 245
humanitarian governance, 155
informal arrangements, 13
IOs, 13, 217–218
military forces, 12
regional trade arrangements, 141, 149
shadow of hierarchy see shadow of hierarchy
small arms, 55, 61, 67
trade governance, 130–135
trade governance under threat, 134, 148–149 see also hybrid mode of governance; market mode of governance; network mode of governance
Hierarchy plus Networks (HpN) model, 183–185, 192–194, 197–199, 198, 204
HIV/AIDS, 239–240, 250–251
hub-and-spokes structure, 188–192, 189, 191, 203 see also diplomatic hubs
human rights
civilian protection, 223, 224, 224–226, 228, 271
in conflict management, 223–224, 224, 224–226, 270–271, 274–275
incremental adaptation, 346
networks of governance, 15
in trade negotiations, 145–146
Yugoslavia conflict, 146–147
humanitarian assistance, 161, 256–257
humanitarian governance
accountability, 170
actors, 160–162
criticisms and challenges, 157, 167–168, 174–175
donors, 161
durable inequality, 157, 167–168, 173
elite actors, 156, 161–164
expertise, 160, 162–163, 173
field theory, 159–161
finance, 169–170
hierarchy characteristics, 155
historical origins, 157–158
Humanitarian Club exclusivity, 34–35, 155–156, 166–167
Humanitarian Club network/hierarchy characteristics, 156–157
localization efforts, 168, 170–171, 174
market mechanisms, 155
military aid, 161
network characteristics, 155
post-Cold War development, 158–159
principles, 159, 170–171
rationalization and legitimacy, 160, 352
reporting and monitoring, 169–170
role differentiation, 160–162
rules for legitimate action, 160
and social capital, 165–166, 172
and symbolic capital, 170–171
UN agencies, 158, 161–162, 167–168 see also Southern actors
humanitarian imperative, 159
hybrid mode of governance
clean energy, 37, 289, 302–304
climate change governance shortcomings, 125–126
contemporary, 344–345
diversity and path dependence, 358–360
effective governance, 67–69, 68
effectiveness of lower bureaucratic levels, 69–70
four modes, 354–356, 355
fragile states, 222, 228–230
global economy, 345
global governance, 1–3, 15, 341–342
global health, 36, 245–246, 268, 271, 346–347
Hierarchy plus Networks (HpN) model, 183–185, 192–194, 197–199, 198, 204
international humanitarian law (IHL), 36, 268, 271, 356
legitimacy, 71–72
pathways to integration, 356–358
pragmatic conception, 49–50, 67–68, 68
private military and security companies (PMSCs), 48–52, 56–61, 67–68, 72
ICA see international commercial arbitration (ICA)
ICRC see International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC)
ideologies of governance, 23, 56–57, 221–222
IHL see international humanitarian law (IHL)
IIGOs see informal intergovernmental organizations (IIGOs)
implementation of rules, core governance function, 15–16
inclusivity, and legitimacy, 29–30
India
and global trade regime, 137
renewable energy, 119
informal intergovernmental organizations (IIGOs)
advantages over FIGOs, 202–204, 210
effect on small states, 210
enabled by transport and communications improvements, 195–197
flexibility and speed of action, 201–202
growing demand, 186–187
Hierarchy plus Networks (HpN) model, 183–185, 192–194, 197–199, 198, 204
information gathering, 35, 184
proliferation, 182, 197 see also formal intergovernmental organizations (FIGOs); international organizations (IOs)
information, diplomatic needs, 35, 184
intellectual property (IP) rules, 137, 241
Intergovernmental Council of Copper Exporting Countries, 94
International Action Network on Small Arms (IANSA), 53–55, 62
International Chamber of Commerce (ICC) Arbitration Court, 87
International Code of Conduct Association (ICoCA), 60–61, 68–69, 71–72, 283
International Coffee Agreement, 99
International Coffee Organization (ICO), 94
international commercial arbitration (ICA)
demand from international business, 88–89
domestic arbitration courts, 86–87
early history, 85–86
enforcement challenges, 87–88
growth under globalization, 100–101
International Chamber of Commerce (ICC) Arbitration Court, 87
interwar, 85–88
networked governance, 101
New York Convention (1958), 95–96, 100
postwar, 95–96, 100–101
shadow of hierarchy, 95–96, 103
transnational identity, 103
International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC)
armed conflict initiatives, 269–270
authority, 279–280
and expert communities, 282–283
guardian and promoter of IHL, 36, 265, 271–272
interwar expansion, 268–269
National Societies, 265, 267–268, 278
private military and security companies initiative, 51–52, 57–60, 71–72
resilience, 265–266
rival American Federation proposal, 269
UN Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC), 161–162
International Conference on Firearms Legislation (ICFL), 62–63
International Criminal Court (ICC), 283, 324–326, 325
International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), 275–276
International Energy Agency (IEA), 292, 299
Renewable Energy Unit, 295
Working Party on Renewable Energy Technologies, 292
international humanitarian law (IHL)
achievements, 280–281
customary law, 272
definition, 265
diversity of initiatives, 277, 281–282
and expert communities, 282–283
Hague Law (military necessity), 273–274
hierarchy/network hybrid model, 36, 265, 268, 271, 356
humanitarian diplomacy, 279
humanization trends, 273–275
ICRC development process, 271–272
implementation, 283
International Conferences, 272–273
international criminal justice, 275–276, 283
legitimacy, 282
military training and awareness, 277
national committees, 278
origins, 266–268, 280
shadow of hierarchy, 279–280
and the UN, 270–271
weapons regulation, 278 see also Geneva Conventions
international markets, 103–104
International Monetary Fund (IMF)
Bretton Woods agreements, 89–91
conditionality, 103–104
elite opinion, 324–326, 325
financial crisis management, 97–98
legitimacy concerns, 313–314
postwar ambition, 3–4
reforms, 314, 329
voting reform, 328
international nongovernmental organizations (INGOs), 158, 160, 162, 169–170
International Organization of Securities Commissions (IOSCO), 22
International Organization for Standardization (ISO), 51–52
international organizations (IOs)
bureaucracy, 216–217
changing number, 7–9, 8, 182
clean energy initiatives, 296
complexification, 288, 305
creation, 1
decentralized governance, 288–289
early communications, 187–188
expansion of mandates, 288
funding reductions, 215
geopolitical shifts, 313–315
governance norms, 315–317
governance theories, 217–218
hierarchical mode, 13, 217–218
hub-and-spokes structure, 188–192, 189, 191, 203
legitimacy concerns, 312–319
and new actors, 21
as open systems, 218–219
reforms, 314, 316, 328–329
resilience, 327–332
secretariats, 189–190, 194, 199
surveys of elite opinion, 321, 324–327, 326–327
surveys of public opinion, 319–324, 321, 323
transitory monopoly, 77
Western bias, 313
withdrawal threats, 319 see also formal intergovernmental organizations (FIGOs); informal intergovernmental organizations (IIGOs)
International Peace (stability) Operations Association, 59
International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement
hybrid network, 36, 268, 271
International Conferences, 271–272
National Societies, 265, 267–268, 278 see also International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC)
International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), 291, 300
International Save the Children Union, 269
International Tin Council (ITC), 93–94
International Trade Organization (ITO), 92, 131–132, 140, 143
internet, 193–194, 197
Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), 324–326, 325
Iraq war, private military and security companies, 56–57
Japan
cartels, 93
opinion surveys on UN, 321, 322
Kimberley Process (KP), 100, 324–326, 325
KPMG, 221
Kyoto Protocol (1997), 295
carbon markets, 111–112, 120–121
Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), 111–112, 298
common but differentiated responsibility (CBDR), 116–117
compared with Paris Agreement, 113–115
developing country exemption, 111, 116
emissions targets, 111, 119
energy sector reforms, 293–294
entry into force, 117
failure, 109, 120–121, 123
and Russia, 116–117
US refusal to ratify, 111, 116, 294
weaknesses, 119–120
labor rights, 145–146
landmines, 15, 278
Le Pen, Marine, 318
League of Nations, 80, 192, 269–270, 339
legitimacy
centrality to global governance, 28–29
concerns, 312–319
definition, 28–29, 311–312
democratic standards, 315–316
and effective governance, 70–72
elite opinion surveys, 324–327, 325–327
ethics of government, 28–29
EU public trust, 322, 323
of global governance, 29–30
global health governance (GHG), 252–254
globalization discontent, 317–319
heuristic dynamics, 330–332
humanitarian governance, 160
hybrid governance mode, 69–72
inclusivity, 29–30
international humanitarian law (IHL), 282
and IO reforms, 314, 316, 328–329
IOs versus new forms of governance, 324–327, 326
limitations of new governance modes, 329–330
network modes of governance, 31
norms of governance, 315–317, 329
output legitimacy, 28–29, 315
private military and security companies (PMSCS), 71–72
process legitimacy, 28–29
rational-legal authority, 24, 351
resilience of traditional governance modes, 37, 327–332
stakeholder inclusion, 51–52, 68–70, 252–254, 317
UN public trust, 320–322, 321 see also hierarchical mode of governance; market mode of governance; modes of governance; network mode of governance
Lieber, Francis, 267
Local Government for Sustainability (ICLEI), 295
London Court of Arbitration, 86–87
low-hanging fruit (policy problem areas), 22–23, 330, 351
malaria, 240–242, 254
Mali, 219
market mode of governance
characteristics, 4–6, 13–14
clean energy, 14, 298–299
climate change governance, 116
dis/advantages, 31, 343–344
examples, 14
global health, 245–246, 249
humanitarian governance, 155
interwar era, 33, 78, 88–89
Paris Agreement activity, 114–115
private security providers, 52
shadow of hierarchy, 16–17
trade regime, 133–134 see also carbon markets; hierarchical mode of governance; hybrid mode of governance; network mode of governance
Maunoir, Théodore, 267
Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF), 279
medicines, intellectual property (IP) rules, 241
mercenaries, 50–51 see also private military and security companies (PMSCs)
migration, and climate change, 110
military aid, 161
military forces
in conflict management, 216, 227–229
hierarchical organization, 12
military training and awareness, 277 see also private military and security companies (PMSCs)
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), 239–241
modes of governance
complex see hybrid mode of governance
drivers of change, 6, 17–27, 78–79, 104, 109, 312–319, 350–353
evaluation, 6–7
hierarchical see hierarchical mode of governance; shadow of hierarchy
Hierarchy plus Networks (HpN) model, 183–185, 192–194, 197–199, 198, 204
historical changes, 345–347
hybrid see hybrid mode of governance
ideal-typical analysis, 10–12
identification of voids, 347–348
interwar era, 33, 78, 88–89
limitations of new modes, 329–330
market see market mode of governance
network see network mode of governance
resilience of traditional modes, 37, 327–332
response to events, 229
three types, 4–6, 15, 340–344
monitoring, 15–16, 146, 169–170, 216–217, 257, 282–283
Montreux Document, 58
moral power, 252
Moynier, Gustave, 267, 269
National Rifle Association (NRA), 53–54, 62, 65–66
National Societies (ICRC), 265, 267–268, 278
nationalism, 26
negotiation forum, core governance function, 15–16
neoliberalism, 20, 249
network mode of governance
characteristics, 4–6, 14–15
clean energy governance, 291, 294–298, 295, 304
climate change, 112–113
decentralization, 288–289
definition, 14
developing states, 137–138
dis/advantages, 31, 344
fragile state governance, 35–36, 217, 222, 227–230
global health, 235–236, 246
Hierarchy plus Networks (HpN) model, 183–185, 192–194, 197–199, 198, 204
humanitarian governance, 155
increase, 8, 9, 15
international commercial arbitration (ICA), 101
interwar era, 33, 79–83, 88–89
power, 252
private security firms, 61
and rationalization, 352
regional trade possibilities, 149
shadow of hierarchy, 16–17
small arms, 53–54, 64
trade governance, 34, 145, 149 see also hierarchical mode of governance; hybrid mode of governance; market mode of governance
networks
International Action Network on Small Arms (IANSA), 53–55, 62
issue-specific professional networks, 214–216, 219–220 see also transgovernmental networks (TGNs)
New York Convention (1958), 95–96, 100
new-new trade theory, 144
Nightingale, Florence, 267
nongovernmental organizations (NGOs)
changing technologies, 24–25
climate change, 121
conflict prevention and management, 217
humanitarian agencies, 158–159
increase, 8, 9
and international humanitarian law (IHL), 279
localization efforts, 168
trade regime, 142–143
weapons regulation, 278 see also international nongovernmental organizations (INGOs); Southern actors
non-state actors
clean energy, 295–297
climate change, 114, 121–123, 125
conflict management, 216, 222
in fragile states, 221–222
PSI participation, 207
TGN participation, 194–195
trade governance, 130, 142–143, 145–147
weapons regulation, 278
WHO Framework of Engagement with Non-State Actors (FENSA), 243, 253
norms of governance, 315–317, 329
nuclear non-proliferation, 186, 278
Nuclear Security Summits, 195–196
Obama, Barack, 117–118
oil crisis (1970s), 292
oil sector
Achnacarry Agreement, 84–85
Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), 94–95
US, 85
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 93
Development Assistance Committee (DAC), 221, 226
Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), 94–95
Oxfam, 162, 221
ozone regime, 120
Paris Agreement (2016)
2 degree goal, 123, 125–126
carbon markets, 125–126
challenges and uncertainty, 109–110, 125–126, 303
cities initiatives, 114
compared with Kyoto Protocol, 113–115
experimentalist governance, 124
flexibility, 34
market activity, 114–115
Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), 113–114, 119
network approach, 114
new governance shortcomings, 125–126
Non-State Actor Zone for Climate Action (NAZCA), 114, 122–123, 125
optimism over intergovernmental process, 123–125
path dependence, 358–360
permanent missions/delegations, 190, 192
Philippines, opinion surveys, 324–327, 326
PMSCs see private military and security companies (PMSCs)
political information, 35, 184
populist nationalism, 149–150, 317–319, 349, 360
power
accountability and fairness, 30, 71–72
of capital, 156, 162
corporate power and self-governance, 88–89
developing country networks, 137–138
effects of informal international governance, 210–211
and global governance changes, 19–20
global governance complexity, 252, 251–252
hybrid governance mode, 71–72
Northern dominance, 244
of regulatory state, 91, 102, 104 see also elites; geopolitics; Southern actors
private actors, 22
private military and security companies (PMSCs), 56–61
conflict management, 216
corporate agency, 56
historical changes, 50
hybrid mode of governance, 48–52, 56–61, 67–68, 68, 72
increase, 51, 56
International Code of Conduct Association (ICoCA), 60–61, 68–69, 71–72, 283
International Code of Conduct (ICoC), 51–52, 58, 70–72
international standards, 60
Iraq war concerns, 56–57
legitimacy of governance process, 71–72
long-term prospects, 70
Montreux Document, 51–52, 57–60, 68
multi-stakeholder agreements, 51–52
power brokers, 71–72
pragmatic governance solution, 49–50
regulation, 33
Swiss government role, 51–52, 57–61, 68, 71–72
US government bureaucracy, 69
US support for ICoC, 58–59
private sector, 249
problem identification, core governance function, 15–16
Proliferation Security Initiative (PSI)
adaptability and flexibility, 206
HOG political commitment, 207–209
minimal bureaucracy, 205, 207
Operational Experts Group (OEG), 205–208
political/technical symbiosis, 35, 208–209
speed of establishment, 204–205
Statement of Interdiction Principles, 205, 209
technical and operational orientation, 206–207
public opinion see surveys
race, 172, 174
rationalization
climate change governance, 109, 118–121
definition, 118, 351–352
driver of governance changes, 23–24, 351–352
humanitarian governance, 160, 352
regional trade agreements
as alternative bargaining forums, 137–139
in case of multilateral arrangements failure, 136, 139
China’s strategy, 138–139
considered after failure of Doha, 20
dis/advantages, 30, 141–142
GATT’s permissive rules, 139–141
hierarchical nature, 141, 149
mega-regional agreements, 149
network possibilities, 149
non-trade issue networks, 34, 145, 149
stumbling block to multilateralism, 130, 141–142
regulatory state, 91, 102, 104
renewable energy
China, 118
EU, 126, 294
IEA, 292, 295
India, 119
International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), 291, 300
RE 100, 114
REN 21, 297
UN Conference, 292
rights protection, 223–224, 224, 225–226 see also human rights
Rio Conventions, Joint Liaison Group, 112–113
Rockefeller Foundation, 237, 245
Roosevelt, Theodore, 195
Russia
Kyoto Protocol, 116–117
opinion surveys, 321, 322, 324–327, 326
security cooperation
anti-terrorism operations, 219, 224, 226–228
in trade negotiations, 145–146, 148
shadow of hierarchy
concept, 16–17
fragile state governance, 219, 229–230
global economic governance, 103
health sector, 245
humanitarian governance, 156–157
international commercial arbitration (ICA), 95–96, 103
international humanitarian law (IHL), 279–280
peacekeeping operations, 219
small arms, supply, 52–53, 56, 61
small arms governance, 52–55, 61–67
anti-control coalitions, 53–54, 62–63, 65–66
Arms Trade Treaty (ATT), 54–55, 66
competing networks, 63–64
continuing problems, 49–50
Control Arms campaign, 54–55
corporate agency, 56
hierarchical mode of governance, 49, 55, 67
industry representatives excluded, 69
International Action Network on Small Arms (IANSA), 53–55, 62
International Conference on Firearms Legislation (ICFL), 62–63
network efforts, 53–54, 64
pro-regulation advocates, 53–54, 61–62, 64, 66
regulation, 33
Swiss Initiative, 51–52, 57–58
UN interest, 62
UN Program of Action (PoA), 54, 64, 66
US gun groups, 53–54, 62–63, 65–66
US support for controls, 64
Wassenaar arrangement, 64
World Forum on the Future of Sport Shooting Activities (WFSA), 53–54, 62–63
Smith and Wesson, 63, 69
social capital, 156, 162, 165–166, 172
South Africa
opinion surveys, 324–327, 326
private security firms, 57
Southern actors
capacity building needs, 170
and Covid-19, 174
exclusion from governance, 29
exclusion from Humanitarian Club, 157, 166–167, 170–171
financial inequalities, 162, 169–170
Muslim identity, 169
and race, 172, 174 see also developing countries
stakeholders, 51–52, 68–70, 252–254, 317
states
domestic politics, 25–26, 149–150, 317–319, 349
hierarchical organization, 12
ideal types, 10–11
increasing numbers, 21
rising powers, 19, 117, 314, 329, 349
small states, 210
UN opinion surveys, 321, 322
supply chain trade, 143–145
surveys
elite opinion, 324–327, 325–327
heuristic dynamics, 330–332
public opinion, 319–324, 321, 323
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
clean energy, 295, 301–302
health governance, 241–242, 257–258
Switzerland
arms control, 64
military and security services initiative, 51–52, 57–61, 68
symbolic capital, 156, 162–163, 170–171
Syria, chemical weapons, 257
Tadić (ICTY), 275–276
technical information, 35, 184
technological change
communications technology, 24–25, 187–188, 193–194, 197, 250
and health, 240, 249–250
and new forms of governance, 6, 24–25, 356
telegraphy, 187–188
telephones, 188
terrorism, anti-terrorism operations, 219, 224, 226–230
TGNs see transgovernmental networks (TGNs)
trade agreements
free trade agreements (FTAs), 142
NAFTA/new NAFTA, 145–146
Preferential Trading Arrangements (PTAs), 135–136
public opposition, 149–150
Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP), 149–150
Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership (TTIP), 149–150 see also regional trade agreements
trade governance
complex governance, 34
geopolitics, 135–139
global value chains, 143–145
hierarchical nature, 130–135
hierarchical nature under threat, 134, 148–149
interwar era, 133–134
market/non-market interwar policies, 133–134
network mode, 34, 145, 149
non-state actors, 130, 142–143, 145–147
non-trade issues, 34, 143–145, 147–148
regionalism and institutional design, 139–141
and supply chain trade, 143–145
tariff collection, 134 see also regional trade agreements
trade negotiations
and developing countries, 132–133, 136–137
Doha Round, 20, 22–23, 136–137
intellectual property (IP) rules, 241
Uruguay Round, 136, 139
transgovernmental initiatives (TGIs), 8
transgovernmental networks (TGNs)
central banks, 81
clean energy, 295, 295–296, 300–302
decentralized technical collaboration, 183n
effect on small states, 210
growing demand, 186–187
Hierarchy plus Networks (HpN) model, 183–185, 192–194, 197–199, 198, 204
limitations, 329–330
new communication technologies, 194–195
PSI’s Operational Experts Group (OEG), 205–208
technical interactions, 185, 198, 198–200
transport technologies, 195–197
Trump, Donald, 23, 26, 318, 360
tuberculosis, 240–242, 254
2 degree target, 113–114, 123, 125–126
UN
humanitarian governance, 161–162, 167–168, 158
“In Larger Freedom” (2005), 339
and international humanitarian law (IHL), 270–271, 279
opinion surveys, 320–322, 321, 324–326, 325
postwar ambition, 3–4
rights protection, 223–224, 224, 225–226, 270–271
small arms concerns, 62
UN AIDS programme, 239, 247
UN Arms Trade Treaty (ATT), 54–55, 66
UN Conference on the Illicit Trade in Small Arms and Light Weapons (2001), 54
UN Conference on New and Renewable Sources of Energy, 292
UN Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), 93
UN Development Programme, 226
Bureau for Crisis Prevention and Recovery, 220
UN Emergency Force (UNEF), 222–223
UN Environment Programme (UNEP), 123, 296–297
UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), 111, 295
Global Environment Facility, 112, 293
governance, 329
Green Climate Fund, 112, 301
sustainable energy omitted, 293
Technology Mechanism, 298 see also Kyoto Protocol (1997); Paris Agreement (2016)
UN Fund for International Partnerships (UNFIP), 297
UN General Assembly Resolutions
human rights in armed conflict, 270–271
small arms, 62
sustainable energy, 301–302
UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, 51–52
UN Health High-Level Meetings, 247
UN High Commissioner for Refugees, 224–226
UN Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC), 161–162
UN International Convention Against the Recruitment, Use, Financing and Training of Mercenaries, 50–51
UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), 161–162, 224–225
UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, 224–226
UN peace operations
crisis missions, 223–224, 227–228, 270
military deployment, 227–229
peacebuilding, 221
stabilization, 216, 227–228
summary, 222–226
UN departments, 219
UN Emergency Force (UNEF), 222–223
UN Program of Action on Small Arms (PoA), 54, 64, 66
UN Secretariat, 199, 223
UN Security Council (UNSC)
crisis missions, 223–224
elite opinion, 324–326, 325
permanent seats, 322
rising powers, 329
voting rights, 314
UN Sustainable Energy for All (SEforALL), 291, 295, 301–302
UN Working Group on mercenaries, 60
United Kingdom
Brexit, 26
humanitarian aid, 161
private security firms, 57
public trust in the EU, 323
United States
antitrust laws and cartels, 84–85, 91–92, 98–99
arms manufacturers, 63, 65
China–US climate change commitment, 117–118
Clean Power Plan, 117–118
climate change and the Kyoto Protocol, 111, 116, 294
and global health, 238, 245
global power, 19
gun groups, 53–54, 62–63, 65–66
humanitarian aid, 161
Iraq war private security concerns, 56–57
Mexican tuna ban, 147
military and security governance, 51
New York Court of Arbitration, 86–87
oil sector, 85
opinion surveys, 321, 322, 324–327, 326
presidential transport, 195
private financial diplomacy, 81
private security firms, 56–59, 61
small arms controls, 63–66, 69
trade agreements, 132, 140–141, 145
WHO withdrawal, 243, 258
Uruguay Round, 136, 139
vaccines, 239–240
Varoufakis, Yanis, 318
warfare see conflict management; international humanitarian law (IHL); private military and security companies (PMSCs)
Washington Consensus, 20
Wassenaar arrangement, 64
weapons of mass destruction (WMD), 186, 204–205 see also Proliferation Security Initiative (PSI)
Wilson, Woodrow, 195, 269
wind power, 299–300
World Bank
Bretton Woods agreements, 89–91
Climate Investment Facility (CIF), 295, 298–299
elite opinion, 324–326, 325
Energy Sector Management Assistance Program (ESMAP), 292–293
and fragile states, 220–221
global health issues, 238–239, 245
legitimacy concerns, 313–314
postwar ambition, 3–4
UN Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC), 161–162
World Forum on the Future of Sport Shooting Activities (WFSA), 53–54, 62–63
World Health Organization (WHO)
budget, 247
bureaucracy, 247
constitution, 236–237
and Covid-19, 243–244
director-general (DG), 243
disease preparedness, 258
elite opinion, 324–326, 325
Framework of Engagement with Non-State Actors (FENSA), 243, 253
mandate, 36, 238, 240, 242, 258
paralysis and decline, 238, 240
reforms, 242–243
role, 36, 238, 258
state authority, 247
universal health coverage (UHC), 245, 257–258
US criticism and withdrawal, 238, 243, 258, 318
World Trade Organization (WTO)
and China, 138
and developing countries, 132–133
dispute mechanism, 133
Doha Round, 20, 22–23, 136–137
elite opinion, 324–326, 325
intellectual property (IP) rules, 241
reform, 328–329
World Wildlife Fund, 121
Xi Jinping, 117–118
Yugoslavia conflict, 146–147, 275–276