Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gvvz8 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-22T16:00:38.282Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

11 - Stigma and Mental Health in Ethnic Minority Populations

from Part III - Stigma and Mental Health in Specific Contexts

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 July 2022

By
Lonnie R. Snowden ,
Genevieve Graaf ,
Latocia Keyes  and
Amanda Ryan
Edited by
David L. Vogel  and
Nathaniel G. Wade
David L. Vogel
Affiliation:
Iowa State University
Nathaniel G. Wade
Affiliation:
Iowa State University
Get access

Summary

This chapter reviews the theoretical and research literature on self-, public, and structural stigma and stigma’s impact on mental health for the largest ethnic minority groups in the United States: African Americans, Latinx, Asian Americans, and Native Americans. None of these ethnic minority groups receives mental health treatment commensurate with treatment need. Research documents that stigma deters minority mental health help seeking, especially for Asian and African Americans. Limited research suggests that pubic and structural stigma may interfere more with access to high-quality care and success in community functioning, although suitably formulated hypotheses remain to be tested. As researchers move beyond ethnic categorization for studying stigma disparity’s role, they must better specify cultural differences explaining minority-White disparities in stigma. They must also further explain stigma disparities in comprehensive models that explain how stigma disparities explain disparities in minority help seeking. Findings can inform culturally attuned anti-stigma interventions and public health messages to reach ethnic minority communities and guide outreach by trusted actors and institutions seeking to break down stigma’s barriers, recruit more minority persons into care, and provide a welcoming environment for successful community living.

Keywords

disparitiesrace and ethnicityculturetreatment barrierscommunity functioningpublic mental health
Type
Chapter
Information
The Cambridge Handbook of Stigma and Mental Health , pp. 222 - 240
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2022

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abdullah, T., & Brown, T. L. (2011). Mental illness stigma and ethnocultural beliefs, values, and norms: An integrative review. Clinical Psychology Review, 31(6), 934–948. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2011.05.003Google Scholar
Abe-Kim, J., Takeuchi, D. T., Hong, S., et al. (2007). Use of mental health-related services among immigrant and US-born Asian Americans: Results from the National Latino and Asian American Study. American Journal of Public Health, 97(1), 91–98. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2006.098541Google Scholar
Abraído-Lanza, A. F., Armbrister, A. N., Florez, L. F., & Aguirre, A. N. (2006). Toward a theory-driven model of acculturation in public health research. American Journal of Public Health, 96(8), 1342–1346. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2005.064980Google Scholar
Acevedo-Garcia, D., & Bates, L. M. (2008). Latino health paradoxes: Empirical evidence, explanations, future research, and implications. In Rodriquez, H., Saenz, R., & Manjivar, C. (Eds.), Latinas/os in the United States: Changing the Face of America (pp. 101–113). Boston: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-71943-6_7Google Scholar
Alegría, M., Chatterji, P., Wells, K., et al. (2008). Disparity in depression treatment among racial and ethnic minority populations in the United States. Psychiatric Services, 59(11), 1264–1272. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.59.11.1264CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alvidrez, J., Snowden, L. R., & Kaiser, D. M. (2008). The experience of stigma among Black mental health consumers. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, 19(3), 874–893. https://doi.org/10.1353/hpu.0.0058Google Scholar
Anderson, M. (2015). A rising share of the U.S. Black population is foreign born: 9 percent are immigrants; and while most are from the Caribbean, Africans drive recent growth. Pew Research Center, Washington, DC. www.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2015/04/2015-04-09_black-immigrants_FINAL.pdfGoogle Scholar
Barden, J., Maddux, W. W., Petty, R. E., & Brewer, M. B. (2004). Contextual moderation of racial bias: The impact of social roles on controlled and automatically activated attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87(1), 5–22. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.87.1.5Google Scholar
Barnett, M. L., Gonzalez, A., Miranda, J., Chavira, D. A., & Lau, A. S. (2018). Mobilizing community health workers to address mental health disparities for underserved populations: A systematic review. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research, 45(2), 195–211. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10488-017-0815-0Google Scholar
Beatty, L. A., Wheeler, D., & Gaiter, J. (2004). HIV prevention research for African Americans: Current and future directions. Journal of Black Psychology, 30(1), 40–58. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798403259245Google Scholar
Bender, D. S., Skodol, A. E., Dyck, I. R., et al. (2007). Ethnicity and mental health treatment utilization by patients with personality disorders. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 75(6), 992–999. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.75.6.992Google Scholar
Benish, S. G., Quintana, S., & Wampold, B. E. (2011). Culturally adapted psychotherapy and the legitimacy of myth: A direct-comparison meta-analysis. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 58(3), 279–289. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023626Google Scholar
Bernal, G., & Domenech-Rodríguez, M. M. (2012). Cultural Adaptations: Tools for Evidence-Based Practice with Diverse Populations. American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/13752-000CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berry, J. W., Segall, M. H., & Kagitcibasi, C. (Eds.) (1997). Handbook of Cross-Cultural Psychology: Social Behavior and Applications (2nd ed., Vol. 3). Allyn & Bacon.Google Scholar
Bloom, T., Wagman, J., Hernandez, R., et al. (2009). Partnering with community-based organizations to reduce intimate partner violence. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 31(2), 244–257.Google Scholar
Bruckner, T. A., Singh, P., Snowden, L. R., Yoon, J., & Chakravarthy, B. (2019). Rapid growth of mental health services at community health centers. Administration and Policy in Mental Health, 46(5), 670–677. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10488-019-00947-wGoogle Scholar
Bruckner, T. A., Singh, P., Yoon, J., Chakravarthy, B., & Snowden, L. R. (2020). African American/white disparities in psychiatric emergencies among youth following rapid expansion of Federally Qualified Health Centers. Health Services Research, 55(1), 26–34. https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-6773.13237Google Scholar
Cauce, A. M., Domenech-Rodríguez, M., Paradise, M., et al. (2002). Cultural and contextual influences in mental health help seeking: A focus on ethnic minority youth. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70(1), 44–45. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-006x.70.1.44Google Scholar
Chen, J., & Rizzo, J. (2010). Racial and ethnic disparities in use of psychotherapy: Evidence from U.S. national survey data. Psychiatric Services, 61(4), 364–372. https://doi.org/10.1176/ps.2010.61.4.364Google Scholar
Chun, K. M., Balls-Organista, P. E., & Marín, G. E. (2003). Acculturation: Advances in Theory, Measurement, and Applied Research. American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Clement, S., Schauman, O., Graham, T., et al. (2015). What is the impact of mental health-related stigma on help-seeking? A systematic review of quantitative and qualitative studies. Psychological Medicine, 45(1), 11–27. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291714000129Google Scholar
Cook, B. Lê, , Trinh, N.-H., Li, Z., Hou, S. S., & Progovac, A. M. (2016). Trends in racial-ethnic disparities in access to mental health care, 2004–2012. Psychiatric Services 68(1), 9–16. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.201500453Google Scholar
Collins, R. L., Wong, E. C., Cerully, J. L., & Roth, E. (2017). Racial and ethnic differences in mental illness stigma in California. Rand Health Quarterly, 6(2), PMC5568160. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5396207/Google Scholar
Creedon, T. B., & Cook, B. L. (2016). Access to mental health care increased but not for substance use, while disparities remain. Health Affairs, 35(6), 1017–1021. https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2016.0098Google Scholar
Darbes, L., Crepaz, N., Lyles, C., Kennedy, G., & Rutherford, G. (2008). The efficacy of behavioral interventions in reducing HIV risk behaviors and incident sexually transmitted diseases in heterosexual African Americans. AIDS, 22(10), 1177–1194. https://doi.org/10.1097/QAD.0b013e3282ff624eGoogle Scholar
Dasgupta, N., & Greenwald, A. G. (2001). On the malleability of automatic attitudes: Combating automatic prejudice with images of admired and disliked individuals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81(5) 800–814. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.81.5.800Google Scholar
Das-Munshi, J., Chang, C.-K., Dutta, R., et al. (2017). Ethnicity and excess mortality in severe mental illness: A cohort study. The Lancet Psychiatry, 4(5), 389–399. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(17)30097-4Google Scholar
DeLuca, J., Shan, L., Jay, S., et al. (2021). Predictors of internalized mental health stigma in a help-seeking sample of adolescents and young adults experiencing early psychosis: The roles of psychosis-spectrum symptoms and family functioning. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 130(6), 587–593.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Doucerain, M., Segalowitz, N., & Ryder, A. G. (2017). Acculturation measurement: From simple proxies to sophisticated toolkit. In Schwartz, S. J. & Unger, J. B. (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Acculturation and Health (pp. 97–117). Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Eaton, W. W., Martins, S. S., Nestadt, G., et al. (2008). The burden of mental disorders. Epidemiologic Reviews, 30(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1093/epirev/mxn011Google Scholar
Eiraldi, R. B., Mazzuca, L. B., Clarke, A. T., & Power, T. J. (2006). Service utilization among ethnic minority children with ADHD: A model of help-seeking behavior. Administration and Policy in Mental Health, 33(5), 607–622. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10488-006-0063-1Google Scholar
Elwy, A. R., Ranganathan, G., & Eisen, S. V. (2008). Race–ethnicity and diagnosis as predictors of outpatient service use among treatment indicators. Psychiatric Services (Washington, D.C.), 59(11) 1285–1291. https://doi.org/10.1176/ps.2008.59.11.1285Google Scholar
Ettman, C. K., Abdalla, S. M., Cohen, G. H., et al. (2020) Prevalence of depression symptoms in US adults before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. JAMA Network Open, 3(9), e2019686. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.19686Google Scholar
Eylem, O., de Wit, L., van Straten, A., et al. (2020). Stigma for common mental disorders in racial minorities and majorities a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Public Health, 20(1), 879. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-020-08964-3Google Scholar
Fischer, E. H., & Turner, J. L. (1970). Orientations to seeking professional help: Development and research utility of an attitude scale. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 35(1), 79–90. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0029636Google Scholar
Fontenot, K., Semega, J., & Kollar, M. (2018). Income and Poverty in the United States: 2017. U.S. Census Bureau Current Population Reports, P60–263. www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2018/demo/p60-263.pdfGoogle Scholar
Frey, W. H. (2018). The US will become “minority white” in 2045, Census projects. Brookings. www.brookings.edu/blog/the-avenue/2018/03/14/the-us-will-become-minority-white-in-2045-census-projects/Google Scholar
Gary, F. A. (2005). Stigma: Barrier to mental health care among ethnic minorities. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 26(10), 979–999. https://doi.org/10.1080/01612840500280638Google Scholar
Gonzalez, H. M., Vega, W. A., Williams, D. R., et al. (2010). Depression care in the United States: Too little for too few. Archives of General Psychiatry, 67(1), 37–46. https://doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2009.168Google Scholar
Grandbois, D. (2005). Stigma of mental illness among American Indian and Alaska Native nations: Historical and contemporary perspectives. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 26(10), 1001–1024. https://doi.org/10.1080/01612840500280661Google Scholar
Han, E., & Liu, G. G. (2005). Racial disparities in prescription drug use for mental illness among population in US. The Journal of Mental Health Policy and Economics, 8(3), 131–143. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16278501/Google Scholar
Herbeck, D. M., West, J. C., Ruditis, I., et al. (2004). Variations in use of second-generation antipsychotic medication by race among adult psychiatric patients. Psychiatric Services, 55(6), 677–684. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.55.6.677Google Scholar
Herbst, J. H., Kay, L. S., Passin, W. F., et al., & HIV/AIDS Prevention Research Synthesis (PRS) Team. (2007). A systematic review and meta-analysis of behavioral interventions to reduce HIV risk behaviors of Hispanics in the United States and Puerto Rico. AIDS and Behavior, 11(1), 25–47. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-006-9151-1Google Scholar
Hodgkins, S. L., & Mereish, E. H. (2012). The intersectional invisibility of race and disability status: An exploratory study of health and discrimination facing Asian Americans with disabilities. Ethnicity and Inequalities in Health and Social Care, 5(2), 52–60.Google Scholar
Hudson, D. L., Neighbors, H. W., Geronimus, A. T., & Jackson, J. S. (2012). The relationship between socioeconomic position and depression among a US nationally representative sample of African Americans. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 47(3), 373–381. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-011-0348-xGoogle Scholar
Institute of Medicine. (2015). Communicating to Advance the Public’s Health: Workshop Summary. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/21694.Google Scholar
John, D. A., de Castro, A. B., Martin, D. P., Duran, B., & Takeuchi, D. T. (2012). Does an immigrant health paradox exist among Asian Americans? Associations of nativity and occupational class with self-rated health and mental disorders. Social Science & Medicine, 75(12), 2085–2098. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2012.01.035Google Scholar
Kim, J. E., & Zane, N. (2016). Help-seeking intentions among Asian American and White American students in psychological distress: Application of the health belief model. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 22(3), 311–321. https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000056Google Scholar
Kneebone, E., & Reeves, R. V. (2016). The Intersection of Race, Place, and Multidimensional Poverty. Brookings. www.brookings.edu/experts/elizabeth-kneebone/Google Scholar
Kuno, E., & Rothbard, A. B. (2005). The effect of income and race on quality of psychiatric care in community mental health centers. Community Mental Health Journal, 41(5), 613–622. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10597-005-6365-zGoogle Scholar
Lowery, B. S., Hardin, C. D., & Sinclair, S. (2001). Social influence effects on automatic racial prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81(5), 842–855.Google Scholar
Marshall, G. N., Berthold, S. M., Schell, T. L., et al. (2006). Rates and correlates of seeking mental health services among Cambodian refugees. American Journal of Public Health, 96(10), 1829–1835. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2006.086736Google Scholar
Martins, S. S., Ko, J., Kuwabara, S., et al. (2012). The relationship of adult mental disorders to socioeconomic status, race/ethnicity, marital status, and urbanicity of residence. In Public Mental Health (pp. 151–190). Oxford Scholarship Online. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.81.5.842Google Scholar
Masuda, A., Anderson, P. L., & Edmonds, J. (2012). Help-seeking attitudes, mental health stigma, and self-concealment among African American college students. Journal of Black Studies, 43(7), 773–786. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021934712445806CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Masuda, A., Anderson, P. L., Twohig, M. P. et al. (2009). Help-seeking experiences and attitudes among African American, Asian American, and European American college students. International Journal for the Advancement of Counseling, 31, 168–180. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10447-009-9076-2CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Masuda, A., & Boone, M. S. (2011). Mental health stigma, self-concealment, and help-seeking attitudes among Asian American and European American college students with no help-seeking experience. International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling, 33(4), 266–279. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10447-011-9129-1Google Scholar
Masuda, A., Goodnight, B. L., Ng, S. Y., et al. (2017). Help-seeking stigma in Asian American college women: The role of disordered eating cognitions and psychological inflexibility. International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling, 39(2), 188–201. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10447-017-9291-1Google Scholar
Masuda, A., Suzumura, K., Beauchamp, K. L., Howells, G. N., & Clay, C. (2005). United States and Japanese college students’ attitudes toward seeking professional psychological help. International Journal of Psychology, 40(5), 303–313. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207590444000339Google Scholar
McMahon, T., & Ward, P. R. (November 20, 2012). HIV among immigrants living in high-income countries: A realist review of evidence to guide targeted approaches to behavioral HIV prevention. Systematic Reviews, 1, 56. https://doi.org/10.1186/2046-4053-1-56Google Scholar
Mendoza, H., Masuda, A., & Swartout, K. M. (2015). Mental health stigma and self-concealment as predictors of help-seeking attitudes among Latina/o college students in the United States. International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling, 37(3), 207–222. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10447-015-9237-4Google Scholar
Metzl, J. M., & Hansen, H. (2014). Structural competency: Theorizing a new medical engagement with stigma and inequality. Social Science & Medicine, Structural Stigma and Population Health, 103, 126–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2013.06.032.Google Scholar
Meyer, O. L., & Zane, N. (2013). The influence of race and ethnicity in clients’ experiences of mental health treatment. Journal of Community Psychology, 41(7), 884–901. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.21580Google Scholar
Miranda, J., & Cooper, L. A. (2004). Disparities in care for depression among primary care patients. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 19(2), 120–126. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1525-1497.2004.30272.xGoogle Scholar
National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2016). Ending Discrimination against People with Mental and Substance Use Disorders: The Evidence for Stigma Change. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/23442Google Scholar
Nisbett, R. E., & Cohen, D. (1996). Culture of Honor: The Psychology of Violence in the South. Routledge.Google Scholar
Office of Minority Health. (2019a). Profile: Black/African Americans. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://minorityhealth.hhs.gov/omh/browse.aspx?lvl=3&lvlid=61Google Scholar
Office of Minority Health. (2019b). Profile: Hispanic/Latino Americans. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://minorityhealth.hhs.gov/omh/browse.aspx?lvl=3&lvlid=64Google Scholar
Office of Minority Health. (2019c). Profile: Asian Americans. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://minorityhealth.hhs.gov/omh/browse.aspx?lvl=3&lvlid=63Google Scholar
Office of Minority Health. (2021). Profile: American Indian/Alaska Native. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://minorityhealth.hhs.gov/omh/browse.aspx?lvl=3&lvlid=62Google Scholar
Olfson, M., Cherry, D. K., & Lewis-Fernández, R. (2009). Racial differences in visit duration of outpatient psychiatric visits. Archives of General Psychiatry, 66(2), 214–221. https://doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2008.523Google Scholar
Organista, K. C., Carrillo, H., & Ayala, G. (2004). HIV prevention with Mexican migrants: Review, critique, and recommendations. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 37(4), S227–S239. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.qai.0000141250.08475.91CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pennel, C. L., McLeroy, K. R., Burdine, J. N., & Matarrita-Cascante, D. (2015). Nonprofit hospitals’ approach to community health needs assessment. American Journal of Public Health, 105(3), e103–e113. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2014.302286Google Scholar
Rogler, L. H., & Cortes, D. E. (2008). Help-seeking pathways: A unifying concept in mental health care. In Mezzich, J. E. & Caracci, G. (Eds.), Cultural Formulation: A Reader for Psychiatric Diagnosis (pp. 51–67). Jason Aronson.Google Scholar
Rosenbaum, S. (2016, March 9). Hospitals as community hubs: Integrating community benefit spending, community health needs assessment, and community health improvement. Brookings. www.brookings.edu/research/hospitals-as-community-hubs-integrating-community-benefit-spending-community-health-needs-assessment-and-community-health-improvement/Google Scholar
Rusch, D., Frazier, S. L., & Atkins, M. (2015). Building capacity within community-based organizations: New directions for mental health promotion for Latino immigrant families in urban poverty. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research, 42(1), 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10488-014-0549-1Google Scholar
Samnaliev, M., McGovern, M. P., & Clark, R. E. (2009). Racial/ethnic disparities in mental health treatment in six Medicaid programs. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, 20(1), 165–176. https://doi.org/10.1353/hpu.0.0125CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schwartz, S. J., Unger, J. B., Zamboanga, B. L., & Szapocznik, J. (2010). Rethinking the concept of acculturation: Implications for theory and research. American Psychologist, 65(4), 237–251. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019330Google Scholar
Smedley, B. D. (2012). The lived experience of race and its health consequences. American Journal of Public Health, 102(5), 933–935.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Snowden L. R., Cordell, K., & Bui, J. (2022). Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health and Community Functioning for Persons with Untreated Mental Illness. Unpublished manuscript. Berkeley: University of California.Google Scholar
Snowden, L. R., Wallace, N., Cordell, K., & Graaf, G. (2017). Increased mental health treatment financing, community-based organization’s treatment programs, and Latino-White children’s financing disparities. The Journal of Mental Health Policy and Economnics, 20(3), 137–145. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28869212/Google Scholar
Steadman, H. J., Osher, F. C., Robbins, P. C., Case, B., & Samuels, S. (2009). Prevalence of serious mental illness among jail inmates. Psychiatric Services, 60(6), 761–765. https://doi.org/10.1176/ps.2009.60.6.761CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stockdale, S. E., Lagomasino, I. T., Siddique, J., McGuire, T., & Miranda, J. (2008). Racial and ethnic disparities in detection and treatment of depression and anxiety among psychiatric and primary health care visits, 1995–2005. Medical Care, 46(7), 668–677. https://doi.org/10.1097/MLR.0b013e3181789496.RacialGoogle Scholar
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Service Administration. (2015). Racial/Ethnic Differences in Mental Health Service Use among Adults. HHS Publication No. SMA-15-4906. Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/MHServicesUseAmongAdults/MHServicesUseAmongAdults.pdfGoogle Scholar
Tai, D. B. G. T., Aditya, S., Doubeni, C. A., Sia, I.G., & Wieland, M. L. (2021). The disproportionate impact of COVID-19 on racial and ethnic minorities in the United States. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 72(4), 703–706. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciaa815.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Triandis, H. C. (2018). Individualism and Collectivism. Routledge.Google Scholar
Wang, P., Lane, M., Olfson, M., et al. (2005). Twelve-month use of mental health services in the United States: Results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62(6), 629–640. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.62.6.629Google Scholar
Williams, D. R., Gonza, H. M., Neighbors, H., et al. (2007). Prevalence and distribution of major depressive disorder in African Americans, Caribbean blacks, and non-Hispanic whites. Archives General Psychiatry, 64(3), 305–315. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.64.3.305Google Scholar
Wilson, B. D., & Miller, R. L. (2003). Examining strategies for culturally grounded HIV prevention: A review. AIDS Education and Prevention, 15(2), 184–202. https://doi.org/10.1521/aeap.15.3.184.23838Google Scholar
Wilson, M. G., Lavis, J. N., Travers, R., & Rourke, S. B. (2010). Community-based knowledge transfer and exchange: Helping community-based organizations link research to action. Implementation Science, 5(1), 1–14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wittenbrink, B., Judd, C. M., & Park, B. (2001). Spontaneous prejudice in context: Variability in automatically activated attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81(5), 815–827. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.81.5.815Google Scholar
Wong, E. C., Collins, R. L., Cerully, J. L., Yu, J. W., & Seelam, R. (2018). Effects of contact-based mental illness stigma reduction programs: Age, gender, and Asian, Latino, and White American differences. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 53(3), 299–308. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-017-1459-9Google Scholar
Yep, G. A. (1992). Communicating the HIV/AIDS risk to Hispanic populations: A review and integration. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 14(4), 403–420. https://doi.org/10.1177/07399863920144001Google Scholar
Young, A. S., & Rabiner, D. (2015). Racial/ethnic differences in parent-reported barriers to accessing children’s health services. Psychological Services, 12(3), 267–273. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038701Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure no-reply@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×