¹ Singapore Chronicle and Commercial Register, 29 January 1829, p. 2.

² Angelo Matteo Cagliotti, ‘Meteorological imperialism: colonialism and the making of meteorology in liberal and Fascist Italy, 1870–1940’, PhD dissertation, 2017; Mahony, Martin, ‘For an empire of “all types of climate”: meteorology as an imperial science’, Journal of Historical Geography (2016) 51, pp. 29–39CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Carter, Christopher, Magnetic Fever: Global Imperialism and Empiricism in the Nineteenth Century, Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 2009Google Scholar.

³ Bickers, Robert, ‘“Throwing light on natural laws”: meteorology on the China coast, 1869–1912’, in Bickers, Robert and Jackson, Isabella (eds.), Treaty Ports in Modern China: Law, Land and Power, Abingdon: Routledge, 2016, pp. 180–201, 180–1CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Warren, James Francis, ‘Scientific superman: Father Jose Algué, Jesuit meteorology, and the Philippines under American rule, 1897–1924’, in McCoy, Alfred and Scarrano, Francisco (eds.), Colonial Crucible: Empire in the Making of Modern American State, Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2009, pp. 508–22Google Scholar; Zaiki, Masumi and Tsukahara, Togo, ‘Meteorology on the southern frontier of Japan's empire’, East Asian Science, Technology and Society (2007) 1(2), pp. 183–203Google Scholar; Udias, Agustin, ‘Jesuits’ contribution to meteorology’, Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society (1996) 77(2), pp. 2307–16Google Scholar.

⁴ For more on these topics in an Asian context see Liu Fang-yu, ‘Chinese meteorology during World War II’, Oxford Research Encyclopaedia (History of Climate), forthcoming 2021; Takarabe, Kae, ‘The Smithsonian meteorological project and Hokkaido, Japan’, History of Meteorology (2020) 9, pp. 1–23Google Scholar; Henry, Matthew, ‘Assembling the weather: expertise, authority and the negotiation of trans-Tasman aviation forecasts’, History of Meteorology (2017) 8, pp. 179–201Google Scholar; Aso, M., ‘How nature works: experts, ecology, and rubber plantations in colonial southeast Asia, 1919–1939’, in Uekötter, Frank (ed.), Comparing Apples, Oranges, and Cotton: Environmental Histories of the Plantations, New York: Campus Verlag, 2014Google Scholar.

⁵ Republican China is not considered an empire officially, but its territorial expansion and political domination regionally offer an interesting contrast and close comparison.

⁶ Secord, James A., ‘Knowledge in transit’, Isis (2004) 95, pp. 654–72CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

⁷ Rouphail, Robert M., ‘Cyclonic ecology: sugar, cyclone science, and the limits of empire in Mauritius and the Indian Ocean world, 1870s–1930s’, Isis (2019) 110(1), pp. 48–67CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Coen, Deborah R., Climate in Motion: Science, Empire, and the Problem of Scale, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2018CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Baker, Zeke, ‘Meteorological frontiers: climate knowledge, the West, and US statecraft, 1800–50’, Social Science History (2018) 42(4), pp. 731–61CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁸ Carroll, Siobhan, An Empire of Air and Water: Uncolonizable Space in the British Imagination 1750–1850, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2015, p. 6CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁹ These tensions have been extensively charted in other contexts. See Crawford, Matthew J., ‘Science as statecraft: imperial ideology, botany, and monopoly in the Spanish Atlantic world (1742–1790)’, in Rotenberg-Schwartz, Michael and Czechowski, Tara, eds., Global Economies, Cultural Currencies in the Eighteenth Century, New York: Abrahams Magazine Service (AMS) Press, 2012Google Scholar; Edwards, Paul N., Gitelman, Lisa, Hecht, Gabrielle, Johns, Adrian, Larkin, Brian and Safier, Neil, ‘AHR conversation: historical perspectives on the circulation of information’, American Historical Review (2011) 116(5), pp. 1393–1435CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Safier, Neil, ‘Itineraries of Atlantic science: new questions, new approaches, new directions’, Atlantic Studies (2010) 7(4), pp. 357–64CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁰ Slonosky, Victoria, Climate in the Age of Empire: Weather Observers in Colonial Canada, Boston, MA: American Meteorological Society, 2018Google Scholar; Mahony, Martin, ‘The “genie of the storm”: cyclonic reasoning and the spaces of weather observation in the southern Indian Ocean, 1851–1925’, BJHS (2018) 51(4), pp. 607–33CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; Henry, op. cit. (4), pp. 179–201; Zilberstein, Anya, A Temperate Empire: Making Climate Change in Early America, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Pietruska, J.L., ‘Hurricanes, crops, and capital: the meteorological infrastructure of American empire in the West Indies’, Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era (2016) 15(4), pp. 418–45CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Williamson, Fiona, ‘Weathering the British Empire: meteorological research in the early nineteenth-century Straits Settlements’, BJHS (2015) 48(3), pp. 475–92CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Coen, Deborah R., ‘Imperial climatographies from Tyrol to Turkestan’, Osiris (2011) 26(1), pp. 45–65CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; Cushman, Gregory T., ‘Humboldtian science, creole meteorology, and the discovery of human-caused climate change in South America’, Osiris (2011) 26(1), pp. 16–44CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

¹¹ Arnold, David, The Tropics and the Traveling Gaze: India, Landscape and Science, 1800–1856, Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2006Google Scholar.

¹² Shapin, Steven, ‘The invisible technician’, American Scientist (1989) 2, pp. 554–63Google Scholar. For recent work in this field see Fara, Patricia, A Lab of One's Own: Science and Suffrage in the First World War, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018Google Scholar; Roger Turner, Weather Workers: The Unseen Scientific Labor behind Air Transport (2018), at https://t2m.org/weather-workers-the-unseen-scientific-labor-behind-air-transport; Parolini, Giuditta, ‘From computing girls to data processors: women assistants in the Rothamsted Statistics Department’, in Schafer, Valérie and Thierry, Benjamin (eds.), Connecting Women: Women, Gender and ICT in Europe, Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2015Google Scholar; Endfield, Georgina and Morris, Carol, ‘Exploring the role of the amateur in the production and circulation of meteorological knowledge’, Climatic Change (2012) 113, pp. 69–89CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Vetter, Jeremy, ‘Lay observers, telegraph lines, and Kansas weather: the field network as a mode of knowledge production’, Science in Context (2011) 24, pp. 259–80CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹³ Mahony, Martin and Cagliotti, Angelo Matteo, ‘Relocating meteorology’, History of Meteorology (2017) 8, pp. 1–13, 13Google Scholar.

¹⁴ Fan, Fa-ti, ‘Science in cultural borderlands: methodological reflections on the study of science, European imperialism, and cultural encounter’, East Asian Science, Technology and Society (2007) 1(2), pp. 213–31CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also Raj, Kapil, Relocating Modern Science: Circulation and the Construction of Knowledge in South Asia and Europe, 1650–1900, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Strauss, Sarah, ‘Weather wise: speaking folklore to science in Leukerbad,’ in Strauss, Sarah and Orlove, Benjamin (eds.), Weather, Climate, Culture, New York: Berg, 2003, pp. 52–3Google Scholar.

¹⁵ Coen, op. cit. (1), esp. pp. 4–20.