From this point on, main issues in system theory are tackled. The very first, considered in this chapter, is the all-important question of system identification. This is perhaps the most basic question in system theory and related linear algebra, with a large pedigree starting from Kronecker's characterization of rational functions to its elegant solution for time-variant systems presented here. Identification, often also called realization, is the problem of deriving the internal system’s equations (called state-space equations) from input–output data. In this chapter, we only consider the causal, or block-lower triangular case, although the theory applies just as well to an anti-causal system, for which one lets the time run backward, applying the same theory in a dual form.

This chapter considers queer relations of identification and desire in nineteenth-century sentimental American literature, especially as they relate to the (re)production of the increasingly privatized, middle class, white, family. It considers how texts queer the substitutions of others for mothers (and fathers, and brothers, and sisters) in order to maintain and queer the normative family. The chapter moves from paradigmatic examples to ones that appear to revel in queer visions of identificatory erotics. It then draws upon queer of color critique to examine how white supremacy defines the human and/as normative gender and sexuality, such that Black and other people of color are placed as queer others in order to preserve a fantasy of white gender and sexual purity. This racialized version of queer as non-normative complicates any ideal of a solely celebratory or even neutral taxonomizing of identifications, desires, and their accompanying kinship structures.

This chapter looks at the way that patent law resolved some of the other problems that chemical subject matter posed, particularly in working out how to define the boundaries of what was being examined or protected. While patent law employed a number of different strategies to delimit a fickle, empirically based, and changing chemical subject matter, this chapter highlights the central role that the materiality of chemical compounds played in helping the law to accommodate chemical inventions.

This chapter explores theories of revolution that propose psychological factors as the main driving force for intergroup change. These theories include social identity theory, psychodynamic theory, justice theories, equity theory, and relative deprivation theory. A number of the theories that also give importance to material conditions, such as system justification theory, also give importance to psychological factors through concepts such as false consciousness. The irrationalist perspective of psychodynamic theory is also integral to a number of the other theories discussed in this chapter because of the pervasive assumption that often people are unaware of what is influencing their participation in collective action and displacement of aggression. The most influential contemporary theory is social identity theory, and the key experiment associated with this theory, the minimal group paradigm, is critically discussed. The complex role of relative deprivation and perceived justice is discussed, with reference to fraternal deprivation and equity theory.

This chapter describes the ways in which emoji and language synchronise to realise textual meaning in a social media post. It organises these as features of a system network that describes this sychronicity. A primary distinction is made between instances where emoji replace linguistic co-text (inset) and instances where emoji accompany the linguistic co-text (punctuate) in a manner similar to punctuation or discourse markers. In terms of language, the key discourse semantic systems involved are identification and periodicity, which are crucial in tracking participants and organising information flow in texts. In terms of the SFL model of textual meaning, emoji appear to occupy a wavelength between clauses and higher-level periodicity, while the unique affordances of emoji also provide new opportunities for creating meaning in texts.

In the wake of emergencies, incidents, disasters, and disease outbreaks (EIDD), people not directly affected can help those in need to provide urgently needed assistance. As an example, the campaign that followed the Grenfell Tower fire of 2017 evolved into a longer-term movement that sought to address both immediate humanitarian needs and political injustices, The psychological literature is surveyed to identify the drivers of this intergroup solidarity. We highlight the importance of identity processes in informing how communities of people who are not directly affected, or are less affected, respond prosocially to large-scale disasters, and how shared identity can promote community helping. Finally, we discuss which groups are likely to help by drawing attention to nuances that relate to privilege in advantaged groups and intraminority support within disadvantaged groups. We end with a description of how identity processes can be leveraged strategically to elicit intergroup solidarity and mitigate the impacts.

The chapter is based on a survey of state practice of CIL identification in connection with execution and annulment proceedings. The chapter proceeds in three main parts. Part I examines the nature of state practice in the form of judicial decisions, addressing, among others, the question of whether and to what extent a decision by a domestic court may be seen separately or concurrently as constitutive of practice, in the terms of ICJ Statute Article 38(1)(b), and/or as a subsidiary means, within the meaning of ICJ Statute Article 38(1)(d). Part II provides an overview of selected features of the surveyed body of state practice. This overview shows how domestic courts and states parties to execution and annulment proceedings before those courts approach CIL identification and rely on ICJ Statute Article 38(1)(a)-(c) to ascertain whether a certain source does constitute one of the sources of law recognised in those subparagraphs of ICJ Statute Article 38. Part III investigates the significance of the surveyed state practice, with a particular focus on some of the wider implications this state practice might have with respect to broader debates on CIL identification and the sources of international law, and shows a bi-directional interaction between general international law and international investment law.

In Chapter 4, we examine how perspective taking has been conceptualized in literary studies and elements of writing style affect perspective taking by the reader. We begin with an analysis of concepts commonly associated with perspective taking, including identification and transportation. In our analysis of the effect of the text on perspective taking, we distinguish two classes of features: First-order features are those that have often been assumed to produce perspective taking, such as the use of personal pronouns, providing mental access to a character, and the use of free-indirect speech. We conclude that there is little clear evidence for a simple causal relation between such features and perspective taking by the reader. Second-order features are those that, we argue, lead to elaborative processing by the reader and thus lay the foundation for perspective-taking analogies. Such features include showing versus telling styles, textual gaps, embodied descriptions, and foregrounding. We conclude the chapter with a discussion of the role of the narrator and the relation between the reader and the character.

Chapter 8 studies what we can do so that people do not fall into traps of trying to believe in conspiracy theories that resist falsification. Belief in conspiracy theories often starts by looking at important societal authorities and a certain amount of suspicion about these authorities. The chapter examines when conspiracy thinking feels so good that people exaggerate their levels of suspicion of what is actually going on in society. The chapter also explains how the online quality of our modern way of living tends to amplify levels of suspicion and the ease with which conspiracy theories are spread. The chapter distinguishes between three different motivations that often are equated with each other, yet that drive conspiracy thinking in different ways. One important motivation is epistemic and concerns people trying to make sense of what is going on in their world. Another important motivation is existential and concerns people trying to deal with threats in their life. Yet another motivation concerns group identification. This includes people wanting to belong to unique groups that give them a sense of belonging. The three motivations point out different ways of trying to intervene when people start falling for exaggerated suspicion and conspiracy thoughts.

This penultimate chapter shows how the story of the constitution is not only told by the written text of a constitution but (even predominantly so) by symbols, images, icons, gestures, behaviour, flags, rituals and so on. The constitutional story is conveyed directly and indirectly in very many (unstudied) ways.