Substitutes for the soul included the self, personality, and the brain. “Self” kept the older issues alive without metaphysical baggage. Calkins’ “self-psychology” held that the self was the basal concept in psychology, and that soul was unnecessary. Allport found that “personality” enabled psychology to address topics vital to soul. The brain is the most significant substitute for the soul. Lashley sought to translate introspective findings into a physicalist language. Lashley retained terms such as meaning and self-consciousness, but articulated them in terms of stimuli and responses of the nervous system. Hebb dismissed introspection altogether. His “cell assembly” theory proposed neural networks as organized patterns of responses to stimuli. Thought is the organized activity of the nervous system. Given the emphasis on organization of neural firing, therein is the brain a substitute for the soul, since in the older psychologies, soul was a principle of form or organization.

Here we uncover the mysteries of the baby as it develops in the womb, discussing how fetal development is controlled. We give insights into aspects of pregnancy not widely known, from the fetus starting to breathe months before it is born, to the question of whether it sleeps – and dreams. We discuss the ways in which information about the mother’s life and her environment affect the baby’s development. Although birth may seem the first major milestone for a baby, we emphasise that many other milestones have been passed before that, inside the womb, out of sight but over which parents can have substantial influence. We give insights into new discoveries about how the organs of the fetal body develop in prediction of the world in which that individual ‘expects’ to live, and what happens when the prediction turns out to be wrong. The idea that the fetus is preparing for life after birth will get the reader thinking about the long-term consequences of the way a fetus develops. Each of us is unique as a result of our development – and nobody is perfect. Our unique development starts from the moment of conception, which introduces the next chapter on sex.

This chapter explores the fledgling countercultural popular music industry in Germany in the 1960s and 1970s and summarises the economic conditions under which Krautrock developed. Compared to Britain and the United States, Germany was a disadvantaged place for popular music production. The chapter gives an overview of the places, events, and people that prepared the ground for independent popular music production away from the Schlager-focused major labels. The role of music journalist Rolf-Ulrich Kaiser in organising Krautrock’s founding event, the International Essen Song Days in 1968, and his three influential record companies Ohr, Pilz, and Kosmische Kuriere, is highlighted. Independent record labels like Kaiser’s and others such as Brain and Sky enabled musical experimentation and allowed a German avant-garde interpretation of rock music to thrive. The chapter outlines Krautrock’s reception on the international market, considering commercial successes (Tangerine Dream, Kraftwerk) and failures (Faust). Independent record producers, most notably Conny Plank and Dieter Dierks, were indispensable for their creative contribution to many Krautrock records and as intermediaries between Krautrock artists and their record companies.

Chapter 5: Neurocognitive Processing and Reading Ability. This chapter examines the relationship between neurological processing and reading comprehension. Over the past twenty years, there has been an increasing connection between real-time behavioral language (and reading) processing and newer perspectives on neurolinguistic processing. In order to provide an introductory overview, the chapter first described the key physiological features of language in the brain. The goal is to connect neurological processes and cognitive-behavioral research on reading comprehension. Both cortical and sub-cortical contributions are addressed as is the recent turn to networks and pathways (the connectome). The chapter also describes the various measurement methods for examining neurological processing (fMRI, ERP, PET, DTI, TMS, MEG). The chapter also notes distinct, but very similar, language processing when engaged in L2 reading. The last major section focuses more specifically on ERP and fMRI research studies, involving both L1 and L2 reading. This chapter does not note implications for instruction.

Recent advancements in psychology, behavioral economics, and neuroscience have shown the human pursuit of knowledge to be an essential aspect of human cognition. It drives intellectual development, is integral to social interactions, and is crucial for learning, decision-making, and goal-directed behavior. Information appears to be valuable in and of itself, even when it has no apparent use, whereas at other times, instrumental information is actively and paradoxically avoided. With this complex role, a wide range of neural mechanisms can be deployed to assign value to information and drive decisions to seek (or avoid) information. Evidence points toward key roles for the mesolimbic system and the prefrontal cortex in these processes. Specifically, two different networks appear to be involved in the implementation of information-seeking behaviors. One network, overlapping with areas involved in processing primary and monetary rewards, appears to drive a general preference for information, as well as valence-dependent information-seeking. The other network, independent of reward processing, is recruited when information is acquired to reduce uncertainty. In this chapter, we review some of the most recent discoveries in the field to provide an overview of the neural basis of information-seeking.

Approaching AN from a temperament-based neurobiological perspective provides a biological foundation and conceptual framework from which to view symptoms and the underlying mechanisms that drive behavior. Temperament informs targeted interventions directed at the cause of the behavior, rather than the behavior itself. This is a paradigm shift for many. TBT-S has five core principles derived from neurobiological research. (1) Eating disorders are brain and biologically based illnesses. (2) Treat to the trait or the temperament underpinnings. (3) Food is medicine. (4) Supports are needed and a necessary part of the treatment process. d (5) Action or movement is fundamental to change.

The first therapy session holds the unique opportunity to introduce neurobiological underpinnings of identified ED symptoms while assessing client traits that impact long-term change.

This chapter focuses on brain and behavioural correlates of psychopathy and antisocial personality that inform us about their motivational and emotional underpinnings. Findings related to the three components of the triarchic psychopathy model – boldness, meanness and disinhibition – are reviewed. An important distinction is drawn between ‘primary’ and ‘secondary’ variants of psychopathy, which should not be viewed as a unitary construct.

An individual’s recovery from alcohol use disorder (AUD) occurs within the context of changes in drinking behavior as well as changes in physical and mental health. This chapter considers how drinking behavior change can arise from, and be supported by, functional improvements in the brain and in peripheral organ systems. The chapter proposes that arousal serves as a common process that can either support or hinder recovery through its link to executive control, negative emotionality, and cue salience; arousal is measurable through overt human behavior, physiological reactivity, and neural activation; and arousal modulation may serve as a holistic intervention target to help sustain recovery. The chapter considers how the arousal construct may be used to identify more homogeneous subgroups of persons in recovery, such as those who may benefit from arousal-modulation adjuvants to bolster executive cognitive control, affect regulation, and flexible responses to contextual cues.