Behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia (BPSD), constitute a major clinical component of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). There is a growing interest in BPSD as they are responsible for a large share of the suffering of patients and caregivers, and they strongly determine the patient’s lifestyle and management. Better detection and understanding of these symptoms is essential to provide appropriate management. This article is a consensus produced by the behavioral group of the European Alzheimer’s Disease Consortium (EADC). The aim of this article is to present clinical description and biological correlates of the major behavioral and psychological symptomatology in AD. BPSD is not a unitary concept. Instead, it should be divided into several symptoms or more likely: groups of symptoms, each possibly reflecting a different prevalence, course over time, biological correlate and psychosocial determinants. There is some clinical evidence for clusters within groups of BPSD. Biological studies indicate that patients with AD and BPSD are associated with variations in the pathological features (atrophy, brain perfusion/metabolism, histopathology) when compared to people with AD without BPSD. An individually tailored approach taking all these aspects into account is warranted as it may offer more, and better, pharmacological and non-pharmacological treatment opportunities.

Experiments were conducted to compare control of entireleaf morningglory with POST applications of DPX-PE350 applied with no adjuvant, a nonionic surfactant, or crop oil concentrate in spray volumes of 94, 235, and 375 L ha−1. Control was greater with a nonionic surfactant or crop oil concentrate than with no adjuvant and control with crop oil concentrate exceeded control with the nonionic surfactant. Spray volume had no effect on efficacy. DPX-PE350 was more effective when applied to foliage only or to soil plus foliage than when applied to soil only after emergence of entireleaf morningglory. Control from soil-only applications was lower on a silty clay soil than on a silt loam soil. Except for sicklepod, mixing DPX-PE350 with fluometuron or MSMA had little effect on weed control.

Existing long-term cotton experiments established in 1976 with minimum and intensive herbicide programs were subdivided in 1985 and 1986 to determine the longevity of fluometuron and trifluralin soil residues after discontinuing herbicide application. In monoculture cotton, seed cotton yield increased when herbicide use was discontinued in 1985 and 1986 after 9 and 10 yr of continuous use, respectively, on a Sharkey silty clay and a Dundee silt loam soil. Yield increases coincided with reductions of fluometuron and trifluralin soil residues. Fluometuron dissipated from the Dundee silt loam soil by 10 mo after the last application but was present in the Sharkey silty clay soil at 0.20 ppmw after 28 mo. Trifluralin did not totally dissipate from either soil, and low levels were present in the Dundee (0.05 ppmw) and Sharkey (0.13 ppmw) soils 30 mo after the last application. Visual injury to fall-seeded wheat and vetch decreased as herbicide residues dissipated. Fall tillage had no significant effect on the rate of fluometuron or trifluralin dissipation from either soil but reduced seed cotton yields.

Experiments were conducted in 1991 and 1992 to evaluate annual grass and broadleaf weed control with bromoxynil applied alone and with graminicides. Bromoxynil controlled velvetleaf better than entireleaf morningglory and controlled both species better than sicklepod. Mixing bromoxynil with fluazifop-P, quizalofop-P, and sethoxydim reduced control of barnyardgrass, green foxtail, large crabgrass, and shattercane. Control of broadleaf signalgrass with quizalofop-P was reduced by bromoxynil. Annual grass control with clethodim was not affected by bromoxynil.

The weed control spectrum of clomazone, the influence of clomazone on the performance of other herbicides, and the performance of tank mixtures containing clomazone were evaluated from 1985 through 1987. Clomazone applied preemergence at 280 g ai/ha controlled 90 to 100% of barnyardgrass, giant foxtail, goosegrass, large crabgrass, seedling johnsongrass, prickly sida, and velvetleaf. Clomazone at reduced rates was more effective applied preemergence than preplant-incorporated for 10 of 23 weed species. Clomazone enhanced imazaquin activity on entireleaf morningglory and sicklepod in 1986. A tank mixture of clomazone, imazaquin, and metribuzin at half the labeled rates reduced soybean injury, increased soybean yield, and controlled weeds as well as the mixture at labeled rates.

The effects of MSMA on the development of straighthead, yields of rice, and hormonal balance in rice plants were observed in a greenhouse study. MSMA was applied to soil at 0, 6, and 9 kg ai/ha. At 6 kg/ha some straighthead and a 45% yield reduction occurred. At 9 kg/ha straighthead was evident, and yield was reduced by 85%. Analyses were made for ethylene with gas chromatography and for indoleacetic acid (IAA) with high performance liquid chromatography. Concentrations of ethylene and total arsenic detected in the tissue from rice leaves grown in MSMA-treated soil were higher at every growth stage when compared to plants grown in untreated soil. Both treated and untreated plants showed marked increases of these compounds during the reproductive stage and a decrease prior to panicle emergence. Significant changes occurred in IAA levels with the growth stage of treated and untreated samples, but MSMA had no obvious effect on IAA levels at any of the stages examined in this study.

Growth chamber studies and field trials were conducted to evaluate the toxicity of glyphosate [N-(phosphonomethyl)glycine] and certain other herbicides to wild garlic (Allium vineale L.). Toxicity to wild garlic increased with increasing rates up to 6 kg/ha. Glyphosate was more toxic to wild garlic when applied in spray volumes of 125 to 500 L/ha than in greater volumes. Addition of surfactant did not increase toxicity or absorption rates of 3 kg/ha of glyphosate, but did increase the advantage of 2 kg/ha of glyphosate over 2,4-D [(2,4-dichlorophenoxy)acetic acid]. When glyphosate was sprayed on wild garlic plants at 3 kg/ha, then washed off after 2, 4, 8, 16, and 32 h, absorption of a biologically significant amount of glyphosate required 8 h, and toxicity increased through the 32-h exposure. Injury, which increased as mowing was delayed up to 12 days after application, indicated that significant quantities of glyphosate were translocated between 3 to 12 days after treatment in a field test. Glyphosate; 2,4-D; 2,4-D + mecoprop {2-[(4-chloro-o-tolyl)oxy] propionic acid} + dicamba (3,6-dichloro-o-anisic acid); and VEL-4207 [N-phenyldiethanolamine-bis-(2-methoxy-3,6-dichlorobenzoate)], applied in a sequence of either spring-fall-spring or fall-spring, were compared for wild garlic control. All herbicides tested controlled wild garlic, but glyphosate was more effective than 2,4-D after spring-fall-spring applications. All spring-fall-spring treatments except 2,4-D + mecoprop + dicamba significantly reduced the number and weight of hardshell bulbs present 8 weeks after the last treatment. The initial treatment in the spring-fall-spring sequence was necessary to reduce hardshell bulb populations the second spring. One year after treatment wild garlic reinfested all plots.

Field trials were conducted from 1986 to 1988 at Clarkedale, AR, to evaluate selective POST grass herbicides for johnsongrass control in soybeans. Herbicide treatments were trifluralin PPI followed by single and sequential POST applications of fenoxaprop, fluazifop, quizalofop, or sethoxydim. In 1986, sequential applications of sethoxydim and fenoxaprop controlled more johnsongrass 4 WAT than single treatments. In 1987 and 1988, all herbicides except fenoxaprop controlled more than 79% of johnsongrass. The number of johnsongrass stems was reduced by cultural practices and herbicides after 2 yr. The lowest cost of control and the highest average net return over the 3-yr period was obtained with quizalofop.

Field studies were conducted in 1987 and 1988 at Fayetteville and Clarkedale, AR, to evaluate various herbicide treatments for johnsongrass control in soybeans. Herbicide treatments were postemergence applications of sethoxydim, fenoxaprop, fluazifop-P, haloxyfop, quizalofop, imazethapyr, and clethodim. No significant soybean injury was noted in 1987 or 1988 at either location in the johnsongrass experiments. All treatments except those with fenoxaprop and imazethapyr, provided 70 to 90% johnsongrass control. Generally, soybean yields were reduced from treatments that controlled less than 60% of the johnsongrass.

Nicosulfuron (50 and 100 g ai ha−1), primisulfuron (40 and 80 g ai ha−1), imazethapyr (70 and 140 g ai ha-1), and DPX-PE350 (100 and 200 g ai ha-1) injury to corn, cotton, grain sorghum, rice, and soybean was evaluated at Fayetteville, AR, during 1989-90 and 1990-91. The crops were planted 0, 1, 2, 4, 8, 14 or 16, and 52 wk after herbicide application. Visible injury to all crops declined as the time interval increased. No visible injury was observed to any crop planted at least 14 wk after nicosulfuron or primisulfuron application, or 52 wk after DPX-PE350 application. Imazethapyr injured all crops except soybean at the 52-wk interval in 1990 but not in 1989.

Field studies were conducted from 1988 through 1990 in Fayetteville, AR, to measure competitiveness of spotted spurge in cotton. Population levels were established by transplanting seedlings from other field areas. There was a positive linear relationship between cotton boll numbers and seed cotton yield. Percent reduction in cotton height, leaf area, dry weight, boll numbers, and seed cotton yield increased as spotted spurge densities increased. Seed cotton yield reduction was 47, 57, and 85% for spotted spurge densities of 5, 10, and 50 spotted spurge plants m–1 of row.

Four-year cropping sequences of continuous cotton, cotton-soybeans-soybeans-cotton, continuous soybeans, soybeans-grain sorghum-soybeans-grain sorghum, and cotton-rice-cotton-rice were treated each year with high and low levels of herbicides to control johnsongrass. High levels of herbicide were necessary to control johnsongrass in continuous cotton, cotton-soybeans-soybeans-cotton, continuous soybeans, and the soybeans-grain sorghum rotation. Johnsongrass was not eradicated, however, after 4 years of cropping sequences with high herbicide inputs. Both low and high levels of herbicide coupled with water management required for rice production controlled johnsongrass and prevented rice yield reductions.

Field experiments were conducted from 1989 through 1991 to determine the effect of DPX-PE350 applied postemergence over-the-top on cotton yield and fiber quality. DPX-PE350, at rates ranging from 50 to 280 g ae ha−1 applied to cotton in the VC to R6 growth stages, had no adverse effect on seed cotton yield, micronaire, fiber length, fiber length uniformity, or fiber strength. Cotton injury was 10% or less in all experiments.

The effects of herbicide concentration, soil water content, and temperature on the fate and degradation of the monosodium salt of methylarsonic acid (MSMA) were evaluated in four soils. Available arsenicals were extracted, purified, and separated using reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Residual MSMA was determined with a graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrophotometer at 193.7 nm. Initial loss of MSMA was rapid, and degradation followed first-order kinetics. The rate of change of the rate constant was temperature dependent only at soil water contents less than field capacity. MSMA dissipation was significantly faster in finer textured soils with continuous flooding and under controlled laboratory conditions (<180 days) than under field (ca. 350 days) conditions. Also, in finer textured soils, degradation of MSMA resulted in significant increases in arsenate and cacodylic acid (dimethyl arsinic acid) over native levels under flooded conditions. However, MSMA treatments contributed only a small fraction to total soil arsenic which dissipated to original concentrations by 120 days. The results indicate that under present recommended use patterns it is highly unlikely that MSMA will accumulate in the environment or carry over from one growing season to the next.

Field experiments were conducted in 1986 and 1987 to evaluate the potential of growth regulators mepiquat chloride and chlormequat chloride as seed treatments to protect cotton from fluometuron injury. Fluometuron at two and three times the recommended use rate reduced cotton stand and height on Taloka and Convent silt loam soils both years. Cotton grown on a Sharkey silty clay soil was not injured by fluometuron. Mepiquat chloride and chlormequat chloride increased cotton stands on a Taloka silt loam soil when averaged over rates and years. In general, fluometuron injury to cotton was not reduced by treating seed with 1000 ppmw concentrations of chlormequat chloride or mepiquat chloride. Chlormequat chloride reduced chlorosis and necrosis of cotton treated with fluometuron, but neither growth regulator eliminated cotton injury or yield reduction caused by fluometuron at two or three times the recommended rates.

Evidence has shown that fluometuron {N,N-dimethyl-N′-[3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]urea} persists beyond the end of the growing season when used in continuous cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) production. Samples were taken from three soils following cotton production in 1980, 1981, and 1982. All three soils had been in production under the same herbicide use regime, fluometuron preemergence followed by fluometuron plus MSMA (monosodium methanearsonate), since either 1976 or 1977. The fluometuron remaining in each soil was quantified using a greenhouse bioassay and a chemical extraction technique followed by high-performance liquid chromatography determinations. The fluometuron concentrations determined by bioassay and chemical extraction methods had partial correlation coefficients of 0.62, 0.91, and 0.72 for a Sharkey silty clay, a Dundee silt loam, and a Loring silt loam, respectively. Predictive equations were determined for each soil to relate chemical extraction findings to plant response. Bioassay analysis indicated nearly 2 ppmw of fluometuron in the Sharkey silty clay in October 1980, with 1 ppmw in the Dundee silt loam, and approximately 0.27 ppmw in the Loring silt loam with annual application rates of 4.0, 2.9, and 3.5 kg/ha, respectively. Fluometuron concentrations as determined by chemical analysis were 0.83, 0.34, and 0.14 ppmw, respectively. Fluometuron concentrations declined over the winter in all three soils. Samples taken in March of 1981, 1982, and 1983 showed little difference in carryover levels in the Sharkey silty clay but more yearly variation in the other two soils. Fluometuron was found in all three soils to depths of 60 cm, but more than 55% of the fluometuron was found in the upper 15 cm of each soil. A controlled laboratory study conducted with the three soils showed that both cold and dry conditions reduced fluometuron dissipation rates. In the laboratory under conditions favorable for dissipation, fluometuron had a half-life of 26 days in the Dundee silt loam, 43 days in the Loring silt loam, and 73 days in the Sharkey silty clay. In the field, dissipation was very rapid in the Loring silt loam compared to the Dundee silt loam and the Sharkey silty clay.

Field experiments were conducted to determine carryover potential to grain sorghum and soybean of DPX-PE350 applied POST at 0.05, 0.1, and 0.2 kg ai ha−1 to cotton the previous year. DPX-PE350 did not injure soybean or affect yield adversely. Grain sorghum was injured and maturity delayed on a Sharkey silty clay but not on a Calloway silt loam. Grain sorghum yield was reduced on both soils 16 and 22%, respectively, by residues from the 0.1 and 0.2 kg ha−1 rates of DPX-PE350. In an incubation study, dissipation of DPX-PE350 was greater at 35 C than at 5 C., and did not differ between the two soils.

Field experiments were conducted to determine if aldicarb, disulfoton, or phorate applied in-furrow at 0.84 or 1.12 kg ai ha–1 affected cotton response to clomazone applied PPI or PRE at rates ranging from 0 to 1.12 kg ai ha–1. Disulfoton and phorate greatly reduced clomazone-induced chlorosis, stunting, and death of cotton seedlings. Compared with no insecticide or with dimethoate applied POST, aldicarb did not affect cotton response to clomazone. A clomazone rate by insecticide interaction was not observed for cotton yield. Clomazone reduced cotton yield at one of five locations. Insecticides affected yield at three locations, where highest yields were from cotton treated with aldicarb. In a separate experiment with 0.56, 1.12, and 2.24 kg ha–1 of phorate applied in-furrow and 1.12 kg ha–1 of clomazone applied PPI, phorate at all rates protected cotton from clomazone phytotoxicity.

Cotton tolerance of DPX-PE350 applied POST alone, mixed with acephate, carbaryl, or dimethoate applied at 220, 1100, or 280 g ai ha−1, respectively, or following aldicarb, disulfoton, or phorate applied in the seed furrow at 1.0, kg ai ha−1 was evaluated. DPX-PE350 at 170 g ae ha−1 did not adversely affect seed cotton yield, fiber length, fiber length uniformity, or micronaire but did decrease fiber strength. The insecticides did not alter cotton response to DPX-PE350. Entireleaf morningglory was controlled 92, 95, and 96% with DPX-PE350 applied POST at 56, 110, and 170 g ha−1, respectively. Mixing acephate, carbaryl, or dimethoate with DPX-PE350 did not affect control.

Diclofop [2-[4-(2,4-dichlorophenoxy)phenoxy] propanoic acid] was evaluated to determine Italian ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum Lam.) control and effect on yield of winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Diclofop applied at 0.5, 0.75, 1.0, and 1.5 kg/ha postemergence provided excellent control of ryegrass and resulted in significant yield increases of winter wheat. Diclofop was most effective when applied at the two- to three-leaf stage of Italian ryegrass growth. Postemergence applications of diclofop plus bentazon [3-isopropyi-1H-2,1,3-benzothiadiazin-4(3H)-one 2,2-dioxide] gave excellent control of ryegrass and significant increases in wheat yields.