Current work in multicultural competency has emphasized factors such as race and ethnicity, age, disability status, socioeconomic status, sexual orientation and gender. For those clinicians who work with military and veteran populations, grounding in military cultural competence is also critical as a prerequisite for providing quality care. We believe that engaging these populations from a specifically cognitive behavioural orientation allows bridging of cultural gaps and that there is a natural alignment between cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) and many aspects of warrior culture. This paper outlines several factors related to the values of military culture and strategies of the CBT therapist to better understand and use these values effectively in clinical practice, including lessons learned from an intensive outpatient program providing speciality care to veterans and military service members.

Poultry, unlike humans, have a fourth retinal cone that allows them to see in the UVA part of ultraviolet radiation. This ocular function is principally used by poultry to modify various behavioural functions such as feeding, peer recognition, mate selection, mating activity, and social encounters. Retinally perceived UVA controls the release of melatonin in the pineal gland of dark-adapted birds. Ultraviolet radiation has shorter wavelengths than visible light, and, as a result, is unable to penetrate to the hypothalamus to induce a photosexual response; UV is thus minimally involved in avian reproductive function. UVA and UVB have anti-rachitic properties which catalyse the synthesis of vitamin D3 from 7-dehydroxycholesterol in the skin of feet and legs, a function that prevents rickets, minimises the incidence of tibial dyschondroplasia, and normalises growth and bone ash in young birds fed diets deficient in vitamin D3; surprisingly, there is sufficient UVA in white fluorescent light to produce these benefits. UVC from the sun is filtered out by the atmosphere's ozone layer, so does not occur in sunlight, but artificially produced UVC has germicidal properties and has been shown to protect domestic fowl from aerogenic viral infections, however, vaccination has made this property superfluous to the modern poultry industry. Recently, the introduction of lamps that emit both visible light and UV has made the provision of UVA to poultry a practical proposition, and so it is opportune that the responses of poultry to UV radiation are reviewed and its relevance to modern poultry production assessed.

Since UK slaughter generation lambs are produced from many different breeds in a wide range of environments, the possibility of interactions between genotype and feed treatment is of both practical and theoretical interest. Such an interaction exists for growth rate in different selection lines of Suffolk sheep on different levels of concentrate feeding (Lewis et al., 2002). Whether interactions exist between breed and feed treatment for lamb growth and carcass composition was investigated using two diverse breeds in several different nutritional environments.

This study assessed the efficacy of the n-alkane technique to estimate intake and diet composition in animals given single foods or a choice of two. In the first experiment intakes of pelleted ryegrass and lucerne, given either alone or as a choice, were measured in lambs housed indoors in individual pens. Each of the three feeding treatments was given to 12 lambs at two degrees of maturity (0·30 and 0·45 of estimated mature sizes). The 12 lambs were constituted as three replicates of the two sexes of each of two breeds. The measured intakes were compared with those estimated using the n-alkanes C31 and C33, found naturally in the foods, and C32, which was given as a dose. On the choice treatment diet composition was estimated using a non-negative least squares procedure and data on C31 and C33 alone. The agreement between actual and predicted intake was good: R2 of 0·938 for log-linear regression with a residual standard deviation of 0·0845. Intake of lucerne when offered alone was slightly yet significantly over-predicted. The proportion of ryegrass in the diet was also accurately predicted (R2 of 0·950 and residual s.d. of 0·0398). Using the data on C27 and C29, in addition to that on C31 and C33, gave a poorer agreement with the observed diet compositions. The low and similar levels of C27 in the two foods meant that this n-alkane provided little extra information that could be used to estimate diet composition. In a second experiment faecal samples were collected every 4 hours over a 24-h period in six lambs on ad libitum, and in six lambs on a restricted quantity, of pelleted ryegrass. There was no significant diurnal variation in the ratios of either C31 or C33 to C32 on either ad libitum or restricted feeding. The time of faecal collection within a day should not therefore affect the reliability of the predictions. The study confirmed the value of using n-alkanes in methods to determine the intake of forages by sheep, and that the time of faecal collection within the day does not affect the reliability of these predictions. The results also confirm the utility of the n-alkane method for estimating diet choice, at least with two-component mixtures.

While crossing of specialized sire and dam breeds can be biologically efficient overall, a by-product is produced in the form of (crossbred) males of the dam line that are unwanted for breeding. In the UK sheep industry, most commercial females are first crosses between males of ‘longwool’ crossing sire breeds, predominantly the Bluefaced Leicester, and females of hill breeds. Genetic improvement of carcass quality in longwool breeds would benefit the surplus F1 males as well as filter through to the terminal sire cross lambs produced by the F1 ewes. As a first step, this paper aims to describe the growth and carcass characteristics of crossbred ‘Mule’ wether offspring of Bluefaced Leicester sires and Scottish Blackface and Hardy Speckled Face dams, and relate the crossbred performance to the ‘lean’ index and live conformation score of the sires and the breed of the dams. In each of 3 years, 1500 hill ewes divided over three sites were mated to 15 ram lambs, selected using an elliptical design to best represent the full spectrum of lean index (designed to improve muscle and decrease fat content while keeping live weight unchanged) and live conformation score present in the Penglas Bluefaced Leicester Group Breeding Scheme. Full growth and slaughter records were available on 2192 Mule wether lambs slaughtered after reaching finished condition, defined as the borderline between MLC fat class 2 and 3L. Measurements included live weight, ultrasonic muscle and fat depth, live conformation score, carcass hot and cold weight, MLC fat score (on the standard seven-point scale) and conformation score (EUROP and 15-point scale) and a visual estimation of subcutaneous fat cover. Nearly 800 carcasses were dissected; 20% had a full side and 80% a shoulder dissection. In part-dissected carcasses, shoulder dissection results were used to predict the fat and lean content of the other joints. Fat and lean percentages and absolute weights were then regressed on the lean index and the residual live conformation score of the sire. At the same finished condition, Scottish Blackface offspring were heavier, older, and had less fat and more lean based both on ultrasound and on carcass dissection measurements compared with Hardy Speckled Face offspring. The index score of the sire had a positive effect on the lean content and a negative effect on fat content of all joints. Conformation of the sire did not have a significant effect on any of the carcass composition measurements, but most conformation traits measured on the animal itself (live or on the carcass) were positively related to fat and negatively to lean content in the carcass. When taking into account differences in visually assessed subcutaneous fat percentage, the carcass conformation traits persisted only in having a positive effect on carcass fat content; none of the conformation traits had an effect on carcass lean content. The results show that selection of sires on lean index is an effective way to improve carcass composition in Mule wethers, but selection on conformation is ineffective.

To enable producers to meet market requirements for lamb carcasses from the resources available, it is important to know how breeds differ in growth and development over time and how this is affected by feeding regime. The aims of this study were to explore the effect of diverse breed and feed types on carcass composition, growth and feed intake and investigate how these change during growth.

In order for producers to meet market requirements for lamb carcasses from the resources available, they need to know how breeds differ in growth and development over time and how this is affected by feeding regime. A previous paper explored the effect of diverse breed and feed types on carcass composition, growth and feed intake. This paper uses different mathematical descriptions of growth to study the relationships between live weight and time and between live weight and cumulative feed intake.

Repeated measures of live weight in growing animals are used to describe the path by which they travel from birth to maturity. A family of growth functions-the Gompertz is one in particular-has been used successfully to describe this journey with relatively few parameters (most importantly mature size and a rate parameter). However, using these functions to differentiate the genetic merit of individual animals to grow is problematic since the estimates of these parameters are highly correlated and are obtained with varying precision among animals. An alternative is random regression (RR) methodology. It allows environmental effects specific to the time of recording to be accounted for and can accommodate genetic differences in the shape of each animal’s growth curve. At present, though, only linear models (polynomials) can pragmatically be fitted with RR. This may be limiting since a priori beliefs about the appropriate form of a growth function, such as the non-linear Gompertz equation, cannot be accommodated. This paper describes the application of RR techniques to describe growth on a population of Suffolk sheep and compares the genetic evaluation predicted from a RR model with that obtained from a more traditional method based on a Gompertz form.

The RR model chosen as providing the best fit (P < 0·01) included additive genetic and permanent environmental (between repeat records of an individual) effects fitted to a fifth order polynomial, and dam effects fitted to a third order polynomial. Measurement error was modelled as six classes. The heritability varied at different points along the growth trajectory (from 0·09 at 15 days to 0·33 at 150 days), suggesting that live weight early in a lamb’s life is a different trait to live weight later in life. There was genetic variation in the growth curves of individual animals, which was accounted for by fitting a RR model. Breeding values obtained by RR and a Gompertz approach were moderately to highly correlated (0·81 at 56 days, 0·91 at 150 days). If breeding value for live weight at 150 days of age were the selection criterion, similar individuals would be chosen with both methodologies. The ‘better’ properties and greater flexibility of the RR approach are discussed.

This paper reports the selection responses achieved, and related results, following 9 years of index selection for lean growth in Suffolk sheep. The breeding goal of the index used comprised carcass lean weight and carcass fat weight at a constant age, with relative economic values of + 3 and –1 per kg. The selection criteria were live weight (LWT), ultrasonic fat depth (UFD) and ultrasonic muscle depth (UMD) adjusted to a constant age of 150 days. By year 9, responses in LWT, UFD and UMD in both sexes, as judged by the divergence between selection and control line performance, amounted to 4·88 kg, -1·1 mm and 2·8 mm respectively; these responses are between 7 and 15% of the overall means of the traits concerned. Although selection was originally on index scores based on phenotypic records, the retrospective analyses reported here used the mixed model applications of residual maximum likelihood to estimate parameters and best linear unbiased prediction to predict breeding values. The statistical model comprised fixed effects plus random effects accounting for direct additive, maternal additive and temporary environmental variation. Estimated genetic trends obtained by regressing estimated breeding values on year of birth were similar to annual responses estimated by comparing selection and control line means. Estimates of direct heritabilities were 0·054, 0·177, 0·286, 0·561 and 0·410 for birth weight (BWT), weaning weight (WWT), LWT, UFD and UMD respectively. Corresponding estimates of maternal heritabilities were 0·287, 0·205, 0·160, 0·083 and 0·164. Phenotypic correlations between all pairs of traits were positive and usually moderately high. There were low negative direct additive correlations between BWT and WWT, and between BWT and LWT, but higher positive maternal additive correlations between all other pairs of weight traits.

The Gompertz is one of a family of growth functions that, when the environment (e.g. food, housing) is non-limiting, provides a useful description of growth as a comparatively simple, single equation. It has three parameters of which the important ones are mature size, A, and the rate parameter, B. Estimates of A and B, however, are highly correlated and defining their separate values for individual animals is problematic. This problem was explored using five methods for estimating the parameters, or transformations of them, to describe the growth of two genotypes of Suffolk sheep kept under non-limiting conditions. One genotype was under selection for high lean growth rate and the other was its control. Live weights that were collected at least fortnightly from near birth to 150 days of age over a 9-year period on 1934 lambs were used. The Gompertz form adequately described the growth of the great majority of the lambs evaluated. When considering A and B as a lumped parameter, Z = A·B, and fitting Z, B and an initial condition (a transformed birth weight) as the parameters, the problems in estimation were substantially overcome as shown by a low correlation of Z with estimates of B both within and across animals. Usefully Z has a biological interpretation in that Z/e is the maximum daily growth rate. Since the Gompertz form adequately described growth in these sheep, the extent of genetic co-variation for the growth parameters values (A, B, Z) was estimated to determine if they were amenable to selection. A weighted univariate animal model was fitted. Mature size, A, and the rate parameter, B, were moderately heritable (0·37 (s.e. 0·04) and 0·38 (s.e. 0·05), respectively) as was live weight at 150 days of age (0·31 (s.e. 0·06)). However there was a substantial negative genetic relationship between A and B (–0·48). Z was highly heritable (0·72 (s.e.0·05)). After 9 years of selection, the genotype selected for high lean growth rate was heavier (P < 0·001) at 150 days of age (5·2 kg) and at maturity (6·6 kg), with a maximum growth rate (Z/e) that was 1·12 times that of the control. Our lumped parameter Z, in effect a rate parameter scaled for mature size, avoided problems in estimating A and B and, in so doing, offers a general and robust description of lamb growth amenable to selection.

With individual genes being identified that have an important effect on performance and fitness in livestock it is likely that such genes will be included in selection programmes. However, in order to devise sensible strategies to achieve this, knowledge of the frequency of the gene of interest is required. In practice, it is possible that estimates for gene frequency are based on genotype testing of only a subset of the population. The question then arises as to what conclusions can be drawn about the population gene frequency particularly in the likely scenario where the sample genotyped is not chosen at random. A procedure was developed by Van Arendonk et al. (1989) to have genotype information on as many individuals as possible given financial limits in the numbers genotyped. In this procedure the genotypes of individuals are predicted using pedigree information and the rules of Mendelian inheritance. What is less clear is the value of the additional information in predicting the population gene frequency. The objective of this study was to assess to consequence of sampling procedures on estimates of gene frequency when additional genotype information is or is not obtained by predicting genotypes on individuals themselves not tested.

Shape of the carcass is considered important commercially and is usually assessed using a subjective score for conformation. Carcasses of higher conformation are perceived to have higher lean to bone (L:B) ratios and give joints of better shape at a weight, characterised as shorter and having a greater thickness of muscle. Some of these benefits have been shown, but so has a positive association between conformation and fatness. Purchas et al. (1991) proposed that muscularity indices could be used as an alternative to the conformation score. The objectives of this study were to investigate the relationships between muscularity, shape of joints and composition within breeds and the relationships between different muscularity indices. Knowledge of the latter relationships is important to determine how many indices are required to adequately describe carcass muscularity.

Fat and muscle reserves are mobilised during winter by breeding hill ewes, living in harsh environments, as they conceive and carry their lambs (Russel et al., 1968). Tissue depletion and repletion were studied in Scottish Blackface ewes through one productive cycle using computed tomography (CT). The aim was to use this nondestructive method to quantify patterns of change in carcass fat, carcass muscle and internal fat in ewes of differing age and reproductive status.

Currently fewer than 50% of UK lambs produce carcasses of acceptable quality for the domestic and export markets, which compromises the competitiveness of sheep farming. Carcass quality can be changed by selection, and this is now being taken advantage of in terminal sire breeds and, to a lesser extent, in hill breeds. However, little attention has yet been focused on the crossing breeds, which have relatively poor carcass quality, in spite of the large impact such breeds have on the slaughter generation. Recently, a long-term project began to develop breeding programmes relevant to crossing sire (‘longwool’) breeds. Its objective is to produce a selection index to improve carcass quality without compromising the reproductive performance or maternal ability of these breeds. The Bluefaced Leicester is the most prevalent crossing sire breed with its crossbred (‘Mule’) daughters out of draft hill ewes accounting for 89% of crossbred (longwool x hill) ewes in the UK (Pollot, 1998).

Ultrasound imaging has proved a very useful tool for the modern animal breeder wishing to improve carcass composition. However, more accurate imaging technologies, such as X-ray Computer Tomography (CT), could accelerate genetic improvement of carcass composition, and widen the range of traits assessed (e.g. by considering deeper tissues). Carcass quality is assuming more importance for breeders but quality traits are difficult to assess objectively and accurately in live sheep. The present study was designed to identify a few CT scan positions from which accurate prediction of dissected tissue weights could be made in meat sheep.

One hundred Suffolk lambs (50 of each sex) were CT scanned and slaughtered at 14, 18, 22 or 26 weeks of age (59±16kg LW, range 20-96kg). Each animal was scanned at seven sites; three in the gigot (ISC, caudal ischium; FEM, mid-shaft of femur; HIP, hip joint), two in the loin (LV5 and LV2, 5th and 2nd lumbar vertebrae) and two in the chest/ shoulder (TV8 and TV6, 8th and 6th thoracic vertebrae).

The idea that an animal of a given kind has, and grows to, a final or mature size is a useful one and several equations have been proposed that describe such growth to maturity (Winsor, 1932; Parks, 1982; Taylor, 1982). The Gompertz is one of these growth functions and describes in a comparatively simple, single equation the sigmoidal pattern of growth. It has 3 parameters, only 2 of which are important - mature size A and the rate parameter B. Estimates of A and B, however, are highly correlated. Considering A and B as a lumped parameter (AB) may overcome this problem. A Gompertz, or any other, growth function is not expected to describe all growth curves. When the environment (e.g., feed, housing) is non-limiting, it may provide a useful and succinct description of growth. The objectives of this study were to examine: (i) if the Gompertz equation adequately describes the growth of two genotypes of sheep under conditions designed to be non-limiting; and, (ii) if the lumped parameter AB has more desirable properties for estimation than A and B separately.

Lamb consumption has fallen steadily over the past 40 years, partly due to the consumer's belief that it is an over-fat meat. In general, there are two approaches to solving this problem of excess fat. Firstly, to identify and breed from sheep that are genetically leaner. Secondly, to modify the feeding strategy to produce a leaner product. If an interaction between the genotype - either breeds or lines within breeds - and diet exists, establishing methods for linking selection and feeding programmes becomes a priority. In the first year of a programme investigating genotype by dietary interactions in sheep, the effect of non-limiting and limiting foods on growth rate, feed efficiency and body composition in ewe lambs from a line of Suffolk sheep was evaluated indoors.

Excess fat in lamb is regarded as an important reason for less lamb meat being purchased by consumers. This has encouraged the development and use (particularly in Terminal Sire breeds) of selection indices that can identify animals that will sire leaner progeny. These indices usually include live weight and in vivo predictors of body composition, such as an ultrasonic measurement of muscle and fat depth, as selection criteria (Simm and Dingwall, 1989). But the usefulness of such in vivo measurements as predictors of carcass composition depends on the correlation between, and the variation in, live and carcass measures. The objectives of this study were to determine the strength of the relationship between ultrasound and dissection measures of carcass composition, and the degree of genetic variation in these measures, in crossbred progeny of Suffolk rams.