Due to climate change and habitat conversion, estimates of the resulting levels of species extinction over the next century are alarming. Devising conservation solutions will require many different approaches, including examining the extinction processes of recently extinct species. Given that parrots are one of the most threatened groups of birds, information regarding parrot extinction is pressing. While most recent parrot extinctions have been island endemics, the Carolina Parakeet Conuropsis carolinensis had an 18th-century range covering nearly half of the present-day United States, yet mostly disappeared by the end of the 19th century. Despite a great deal of speculation, the major cause of its extinction remains unknown. Establishing the date when a species went extinct is one of the first steps in determining what caused their extinction. While there have been estimates of their extinction date, these analyses used a limited dataset and did not include observational data. We used a recently published, extensive dataset of Carolina Parakeet specimens and observations combined with a Bayesian extinction estimating model to determine the most likely extinction dates. By considering each of the two subspecies independently, we found that they went extinct ˜30 years apart: the western subspecies C. c. ludovicianus going extinct around 1914 and the eastern subspecies C. c. carolinensis either in the late 1930s or mid-1940s. Had we only considered all observations together, this pattern would have been obscured, possibly missing a major clue in solving the mystery of the parakeet’s extinction. Since the Carolina Parakeet was a wide-ranging species that went extinct during a period of rapid agricultural and industrial expansion, conditions that mirror those occurring in many parts of the world where parrot diversity is highest, any progress we make in unraveling the mystery of their disappearance may be vital to modern conservation efforts.

OBJECTIVES/SPECIFIC AIMS: To evaluate the ability of various techniques to track changes in body fluid volumes before and after a rapid infusion of saline. METHODS/STUDY POPULATION: Eight healthy participants (5M; 3F) completed baseline measurements of 1) total body water using ethanol dilution and bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) and 2) blood volume, plasma volume and red blood cell (RBC) volume using carbon monoxide rebreathe technique and I-131 albumin dilution. Subsequently, 30mL saline/kg body weight was administered intravenously over 20 minutes after which BIA and ethanol dilution were repeated. RESULTS/ANTICIPATED RESULTS: On average, 2.29±0.35 L saline was infused with an average increase in net fluid input-output (I/O) of 1.56±0.29 L. BIA underestimated measured I/O by −3.4±7.9%, while ethanol dilution did not demonstrate a measurable change in total body water. Carbon monoxide rebreathe differed from I-131 albumin dilution measurements of blood, plasma and RBC volumes by +0.6±2.8%, −5.4±3.6%, and +11.0±4.7%, respectively. DISCUSSION/SIGNIFICANCE OF IMPACT: BIA is capable of tracking modest changes in total body water. Carbon monoxide rebreathe appears to be a viable alternative for the I-131 albumin dilution technique to determine blood volume. Together, these two techniques may be useful in monitoring fluid status in patients with impaired fluid regulation.

We assessed the ability of climatic, environmental, and anthropogenic variables to predict areas of high-risk for plant invasion and consider the relative importance and contribution of these predictor variables by considering two spatial scales in a region of rapidly changing climate. We created predictive distribution models, using Maxent, for three highly invasive plant species (Canada thistle, white sweetclover, and reed canarygrass) in Alaska at both a regional scale and a local scale. Regional scale models encompassed southern coastal Alaska and were developed from topographic and climatic data at a 2 km (1.2 mi) spatial resolution. Models were applied to future climate (2030). Local scale models were spatially nested within the regional area; these models incorporated physiographic and anthropogenic variables at a 30 m (98.4 ft) resolution. Regional and local models performed well (AUC values > 0.7), with the exception of one species at each spatial scale. Regional models predict an increase in area of suitable habitat for all species by 2030 with a general shift to higher elevation areas; however, the distribution of each species was driven by different climate and topographical variables. In contrast local models indicate that distance to right-of-ways and elevation are associated with habitat suitability for all three species at this spatial level. Combining results from regional models, capturing long-term distribution, and local models, capturing near-term establishment and distribution, offers a new and effective tool for highlighting at-risk areas and provides insight on how variables acting at different scales contribute to suitability predictions. The combinations also provides easy comparison, highlighting agreement between the two scales, where long-term distribution factors predict suitability while near-term do not and vice versa.

The Spitzer Legacy Program “Surveying the Agents of Galaxy Evolution in the Tidally-Stripped, Low-Metallicity Small Magellanic Cloud” (SAGE-SMC; Gordon et al. 2011) allows a global study of star formation in the SMC at high enough resolution to resolve individual cores and protostars at a range of mid-IR wavelengths. Using the SAGE-SMC IRAC (3.6 - 8.0 μm) and MIPS (24 and 70 μm) catalogs and images combined with the near-IR and optical data, we identified a population of ∼1100 intermediate- to high-mass Young Stellar Objects (YSOs) in the SMC (3 × more than previously known). We investigate the properties of the YSOs and how they relate to the galaxy's structure and gas and dust distribution.

Trap crops are a plausible control strategy for the wheat stem sawfly (WSS), Cephus cinctus Norton (Hymenoptera: Cephidae), especially in alternate wheat−fallow cropping systems. Identifying the most suitable winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L., Poaceae) cultivars is necessary to further improve the effectiveness of winter wheat trap crops. We compared cultivars suitable for cultivation in Montana to identify those that exhibit the greatest potential as trap crops. To accomplish this we used nine winter wheat cultivars to analyze plant characteristics that influence the oviposition behavior of the WSS: stem height, stem diameter, rate of plant development, and emission of the WSS attractant (Z)-3-hexenyl acetate. Data on sawfly-induced stem cutting collected from these cultivars in field nurseries were analyzed to evaluate the potential of each cultivar to attract sawflies. Based on these criteria, five cultivars with good potential as trap crops are ‘Norstar’, ‘Neeley’, ‘Morgan’, ‘Rampart’, and ‘BigSky’. More data from laboratory preference tests and detailed measurement of semiochemical production from these cultivars are required for selecting optimal cultivars for trap-cropping.

Salmonella enterica Enteritidis in chickens serves as a reservoir for salmonellosis in humans and the structure of its lipopolysaccharide (LPS) has been used to assess invasiveness. Culture from chick spleens generated colonies with an unusual wrinkled morphology, and it is designated the lacy phenotype. To characterize the nature of the morphological change, three isogenic variants were compared. Only the lacy phenotype produced a temperature-dependent cell surface matrix composed of several proteins in association with LPS high molecular weight O-antigen.

Flagellin and a 35 kDa protein were identified as specific proteinaceous components of matrix. Both proteins cross-reacted with a monoclonal antibody previously determined to specifically detect the g-epitope of the Enteritidis monophasic flagella (H-antigen). These results suggest that O-antigen in association with protein contributes to cross-reactivity between molecules. The lacy phenotype was more organ invasive in 5-day-old chicks than isogenic variants producing low molecular weight O-antigen. However, it was no more efficient at contaminating eggs after oral inoculation of hens than a variant that completely lacked O-antigen, thus the lacy phenotype is classified as an intermediately invasive organism. The distinctive colonial phenotype of SE6-E21lacy was used to investigate environmental factors that decreased O/C ratios and contributed to attenuation. In so doing, it was found that growth in complement at 46°C caused matrix producing cells to hyperflagellate and migrate across agar surfaces. These results suggest that the structure of O-antigen might influence the secretion and/or the function of Enteritidis cell-surface proteins. The data also reveal a greater heterogeneity than has been assumed in the phenotype, and possibly the infectious behaviour, of Enteritidis.

Early results from the SAGE-SMC (Surveying the Agents of Galaxy Evolution in the tidally-disrupted, low-metallicity Small Magellanic Cloud) Spitzer legacy program are presented. These early results concentrate on the SAGE-SMC MIPS observations of the SMC Tail region. This region is the high H i column density portion of the Magellanic Bridge adjacent to the SMC Wing. We detect infrared dust emission and measure the gas-to-dust ratio in the SMC Tail and find it similar to that of the SMC Body. In addition, we find two embedded cluster regions that are resolved into multiple sources at all MIPS wavelengths.

We recently launched a comprehensive ground based (ESO/VLT/NTT) and space (HST & SST) study of the present and past star formation in the Small Magellanic Cloud (SMC), in clusters and in the field, with the goal of understanding how star and cluster formation occur and propagate in an environment of low metallicity, with a gas and dust content that is significantly lower than in the Milky Way. In this paper, we present some preliminary results of the “young cluster” program, where we acquired deep F555W (~V), and F814W (~I) HST/ACS images of the four young and massive SMC star clusters: NGC 346, NGC 602, NGC 299, and NGC 376.

Skeletal remains recovered and analyzed from Archaic and Paleoindian periods demonstrate less pronounced Asiatic/Sinodont features that distinguish them from present day Amerindians. This paper describes the metric and nonmetric traits that link a Middle Plains Archaic male (radiocarbon dated to 2220-2500 B. C.), found near Sidney, Nebraska, to Sinodonts, Sundadonts, and Paleoindians. Metrically, the Sidney male differs from Late Prehistoric and Historic Mandan and Arikara males (1500 to 1830 A.D.) from the same region in cranial vault height (auricular height p ≤ .02 basion-porion height p ≤ .07). His cranium is longer and higher (acrocranic Cranial Breadth-Height Index) than that of the more highly derived Mandan and Arikara males. Several of the Sidney male’s cranial and femoral traits show a blend of Amerindian and earlier protomongoloid traits, distinguishable from recent Amerindian populations. These traits suggest affiliation to a common Eurasian progenitor for Sinodonts, Sundadonts, and Paleoindians, and support the hypothesis that Plains Amerindians descended from the earliest wave of Paleoindians who crossed the Bering Straits. Tracing microevolutionary changes across time is a challenging, incremental process, not yet resolved by the limited Paleoindian and Archaic skeletal remains discovered to date. However, the intermediate skeletal characteristics of the Sidney male indicate gradual adaptation and suggest that natural selection most strongly influenced the adaptation of Plains peoples. Information presented here increases the database needed for future investigations of microevolution, gene flow patterns and the cultural history that may someday link early Archaic populations and Paleoindians to specific tribes among the modern Plains Amerindians.

The degradation and annealing kinetics of both a-Si:H and a-SiGe:H single-junction solar cells were investigated under varying conditions. In every case, the kinetics associated with degradation and annealing were slower for a-SiGe:H cells than for a-Si:H cells. Since deuterium diffusion studies indicate that the hydrogen in our a-SiGe:H films diffuses more slowly than that in the a-Si:H films, hydrogen motion may play a role in determining both the degradation and annealing kinetics of the devices.

With the advent of new multijunction thin film solar cells, amorphous silicon photovoltaic technology is undergoing a commercial revival with about 30 megawatts of annual capacity coming on-line in the next year. These new a−Si multijunction modules should exhibit stabilized conversion efficiencies on the order of 8%, and efficiencies over 10% may be obtained in the next several years. The improved performance results from the development of amorphous and microcrystalline silicon alloy films with improved optoelectronic properties and from the development of more efficient device structures. Moreover, the manufacturing costs for these multijunction modules using the new large-scale plants should be on the order of $1 per peak watt. These modules may find widespread use in solar farms, photovoltaic roofing, as well as in traditional remote applications.