This chapter discusses the human factors foundations of trust, specifically human-automation trust. Trust in automation can be conceptualized as a three-factor model consisting of the human trustor, the automated trustee, and the environment or context. In this model, qualities of the human (such as experience), work with qualities of the robot (such as form) in an environment that also influences the nature of the interaction. Since trust is constantly evolving, time itself is also a facet of trust in human-automation interactions. Measurement of trust is challenging because trust itself is a latent variable, and not directly observable. However, measurement is necessary to ensure trust is appropriately calibrated and there is not a mismatch between the trustors’ expectations, and the trustees’ capabilities. Trust measures include self-report or survey-type measures, behavioral observations, and biological measures.

Ecosystem modeling, a pillar of the systems ecology paradigm (SEP), addresses questions such as, how much carbon and nitrogen are cycled within ecological sites, landscapes, or indeed the earth system? Or how are human activities modifying these flows? Modeling, when coupled with field and laboratory studies, represents the essence of the SEP in that they embody accumulated knowledge and generate hypotheses to test understanding of ecosystem processes and behavior. Initially, ecosystem models were primarily used to improve our understanding about how biophysical aspects of ecosystems operate. However, current ecosystem models are widely used to make accurate predictions about how large-scale phenomena such as climate change and management practices impact ecosystem dynamics and assess potential effects of these changes on economic activity and policy making. In sum, ecosystem models embedded in the SEP remain our best mechanism to integrate diverse types of knowledge regarding how the earth system functions and to make quantitative predictions that can be confronted with observations of reality. Modeling efforts discussed are the Century ecosystem model, DayCent ecosystem model, Grassland Ecosystem Model ELM, food web models, Savanna model, agent-based and coupled systems modeling, and Bayesian modeling.

The systems ecology paradigm (SEP) emerged in the late 1960s at a time when societies throughout the world were beginning to recognize that our environment and natural resources were being threatened by their activities. Management practices in rangelands, forests, agricultural lands, wetlands, and waterways were inadequate to meet the challenges of deteriorating environments, many of which were caused by the practices themselves. Scientists recognized an immediate need was developing a knowledge base about how ecosystems function. That effort took nearly two decades (1980s) and concluded with the acceptance that humans were components of ecosystems, not just controllers and manipulators of lands and waters. While ecosystem science was being developed, management options based on ecosystem science were shifting dramatically toward practices supporting sustainability, resilience, ecosystem services, biodiversity, and local to global interconnections of ecosystems. Emerging from the new knowledge about how ecosystems function and the application of the systems ecology approach was the collaboration of scientists, managers, decision-makers, and stakeholders locally and globally. Today’s concepts of ecosystem management and related ideas, such as sustainable agriculture, ecosystem health and restoration, consequences of and adaptation to climate change, and many other important local to global challenges are a direct result of the SEP.

Emerging from the warehouse of knowledge about terrestrial ecosystem functioning and the application of the systems ecology paradigm, exemplified by the power of simulation modeling, tremendous strides have been made linking the interactions of the land, atmosphere, and water locally to globally. Through integration of ecosystem, atmospheric, soil, and more recently social science interactions, plausible scenarios and even reasonable predictions are now possible about the outcomes of human activities. The applications of that knowledge to the effects of changing climates, human-caused nitrogen enrichment of ecosystems, and altered UV-B radiation represent challenges addressed in this chapter. The primary linkages addressed are through the C, N, S, and H2O cycles, and UV-B radiation. Carbon dioxide exchanges between land and the atmosphere, N additions and losses to and from lands and waters, early studies of SO2 in grassland ecosystem, and the effects of UV-B radiation on ecosystems have been mainstays of research described in this chapter. This research knowledge has been used in international and national climate assessments, for example the IPCC, US National Climate Assessment, and Paris Climate Accord. Likewise, the knowledge has been used to develop concepts and technologies related to sustainable agriculture, C sequestration, and food security.

SCROLLING AWAY THE REEL WORLD

So how did Joycean literary cinematicity develop after Ulysses? The notion of ‘hands-on’ play is both integral to optical toys and to linguistic creativity in Joyce's next major work, Finnegans Wake (1939), based as it is on a ludic approach to language which kaleidoscopically deforms and reforms its graphic and phonic elements. Although a comprehensive examination of Finnegans Wake in cinematic terms is beyond the scope of this book, it clearly continues to reference and explore the by then well-established moving image technologies such as film, as well as emergent ones in the form of television broadcasting. Indeed it confirms that transformative visual and linguistic play were fundamental and ongoing to Joyce's artistic processes. As discussed in Chapter 2, the young Joyce performed a boisterous charade punning on the kaleidoscope's ability to produce moving patterns through symmetrical permutations of coloured shapes in combination and dispersal, by colliding with a partner, then flying apart. This riddle reappeared in Finnegans Wake as: ‘Answer: A collideorscape!’ (143.28). Philip Kitcher treats Joyce's trope as the foundation for his method of reading the novel. It occurs in a passage in which a ‘fargazer’ seems to look back telescopically over the time and space of their own life, but also the text ‘scape’ of the novel itself, which continuously figures and refigures Irish and collective human history in a synaesthetic moving ‘panaroma of all flores of speech’ (143.26 and 3–4, respectively). Kitcher argues that Joyce's reference to ‘a device in which the same elements constantly rearrange themselves in new patterns’ is a prompt foregrounding the novel's own endlessly recirculating system of recombination and dispersal at thematic, motific and linguistically granular levels. Consequently, in this coda, I want to show that, far from abandoning his fascination with the past and future of moving image media in Finnegans Wake's linguistic turn, which has been seen as marking Joyce's reorientation towards the ‘radiophonic’, his last novel continues to express it in ingenious ways.

Finnegans Wake played on how film simulated reality as moving images with a virtualism unsurpassed in any medium before, punning it homophonically in the phrase ‘roll away the reel world’ (64.25–6).

A MOBILISED VIRTUAL GAZE

Joyce began writing Portrait in Trieste in 1907. After it was published in book form in 1916, H. G. Wells championed its shattering of formal moulds as ‘a mosaic of jagged fragments that does altogether render with extreme completeness the growth of a rather secretive, imaginative boy in Dublin’. He applauded its abrupt transitions indicating shifts in space, time and consciousness: ‘The technique is startling but on the whole it succeeds.’ Though objecting to the substitution of dashes for quotation marks, Wells framed this in equally cinematic terms: ‘one has the same wincing feeling of being flicked at that one used to have in the early cinema shows’. Other reviewers, while less keen on Portrait's innovations, related them to moving images too. The New Age's reviewer criticised Joyce's ‘determination to produce Kinematographic effects instead of a literary portrait’, so it seemed ‘a mere catalogue of unrelated states’. Consequently, Portrait has also long been regarded as a key stage towards the cinematicity of Ulysses, as Eisenstein recognised, particularly the subjective visuality of Joyce's interior monologue. While the technique does not yet appear in its culminating (i.e. first-person) form in Portrait, the novel nonetheless utilises a wide variety of techniques to visualise Stephen's stream of consciousness and ‘unfold the display of events simultaneously with the particular manner in which these events pass through the consciousness and feelings, the associations and emotions, of his chief character’, to borrow Eisenstein's terms. More recently, Robert A. Gessner has argued that Joyce's Italian film-going came out strongly in Portrait's flashback, cross-cutting and ‘editing of time and space with the intensity and concentration of the camera’. To Spiegel, this means that Portrait's ‘temporalised space’ comes alive, ‘as process, developing, changing, infinitely flexible, quick with advances and recessions, expansions and contractions, openings and closings, accumulations and dissolutions’. Similarly, Neil Sinyard considers that the four sections of chapter 1 constitute ‘one of the finest examples of montage in fiction’. Hence Stephen's feelings and thoughts are monstrated through ekphrastic images rather than narrative commentary, reflecting the methods of lantern shows and their remediation in silent films to emphasise the primacy of visuality in the novel.

By placing Joyce's writing back into the context of nineteenth-century moving image media, I have provided an explanation for the paradox that his cinematicity seemed ahead of screen practice itself in the views of directors and theorists. I have demonstrated how Joyce's eye and imagination were so profoundly shaped by the late Victorian visual culture which film remediated that he was able to achieve what Bazin called ‘ultracinematographic’ effects. This explains Joyce's extraordinary receptiveness to projected film when it arrived, and as pioneers began developing its capacities by synthesising the diverse characteristics of its predecessors. Thus Joyce was instrumental in extending classical ekphrasis into the modernity of moving photographic images, broadcasting and telecommunications. Hence I have addressed the deficit in scholarship before the cinematograph on Joyce's cinematic Modernism,

We have seen how pre-filmic optical toys such as the kaleidoscope, stereoscope, zoëtrope and phenakistoscope, which exploited the ‘persistence of vision effect’, are central to how Joyce presented vision and consciousness in terms of technologically produced moving images. His fiction reveals a profound understanding that cinematicity was never solely inherent to the apparatus and institution that became known as cinema in the twentieth century, but was a set of evolving characteristics shared across a whole inter-medial ecology. Moreover, Joyce's ekphrastic experiments tell us much about how such cinematic forms interacted and shaped the media-cultural imaginary of his historical moment and after. My research confirms that his literary method was imaginatively primed and nourished through the connective tissue of a visual culture imbued with a sense of things to come. Alongside optical toys, Joyce references shadowgraphy, magic lanterns, panoramas and dioramas, instantaneous photographic analysis, as well as film peepshows. His fiction reflects how these media influenced, overlapped and continued to coexist with projected film for some time; and he emulates and critiques their effects in its pages, with a flair for ekphrastic cinematicity surpassing other Modernists.

The mutoscope, which mechanised the flipbook principle, is the only device for watching moving photographic pictures named in Ulysses, albeit what we commonly call cinema was nearly a quarter of a century old by its publication. By choosing this device rather than projected film shows, Joyce both looked into cinema's future and backwards into its prehistory in animated images.