New machine-vision technologies like the John Deere See & Spray™ could provide the opportunity to reduce herbicide use by detecting weeds and target-spraying herbicides simultaneously. Experiments were conducted for 2 yr in Keiser, AR, and Greenville, MS, to compare residual herbicide timings and targeted spray applications versus traditional broadcast herbicide programs in glyphosate/glufosinate/dicamba-resistant soybean. Treatments utilized consistent herbicides and rates with a preemergence (PRE) application followed by an early postemergence (EPOST) dicamba application followed by a mid-postemergence (MPOST) glufosinate application. All treatments included a residual at PRE and excluded or included a residual EPOST and MPOST. Additionally, the herbicide application method was considered, with traditional broadcast applications, broadcasted residual + targeted applications of postemergence herbicides (dual tank), or targeted applications of all herbicides (single tank). Targeted applications provided comparable control to broadcast applications with a ≤1% decrease in efficacy and overall control ≥93% for Palmer amaranth, broadleaf signalgrass, morningglory species, and purslane species. Additionally, targeted sprays slightly reduced soybean injury by at most 5 percentage points across all evaluations, and these effects did not translate to a yield increase at harvest. The relationship between weed area and targeted sprayed area also indicates that nozzle angle can influence potential herbicide savings, with narrower nozzle angles spraying less area. On average, targeted sprays saved a range of 28.4% to 62.4% on postemergence herbicides. On the basis of these results, with specific machine settings, targeted application programs could reduce the amount of herbicide applied while providing weed control comparable to that of traditional broadcast applications.

S-Metolachlor is commonly used by soybean and cotton growers, especially with POST treatments for overlapping residuals, to obtain season-long control of glyphosate- and acetolactate synthase (ALS)–resistant Palmer amaranth. In Crittenden County, AR, reports of Palmer amaranth escapes following S-metolachlor treatment were first noted at field sites near Crawfordsville and Marion in 2016. Field and greenhouse experiments were conducted to confirm S-metolachlor resistance and to test for cross-resistance to other very-long-chain fatty acid (VLCFA)–inhibiting herbicides in Palmer amaranth accessions from Crawfordsville and Marion. Palmer amaranth control in the field (soil <3% organic matter) 14 d after treatment (DAT) was ≥94% with a 1× rate of acetochlor (1,472 g ai ha–1; emulsifiable concentrate formulation) and dimethenamid-P (631 g ai ha–1). However, S-metolachlor at 1,064 g ai ha–1 provided only 76% control, which was not significantly different from the 1/2× and 1/4× rates of dimethenamid-P and acetochlor (66% to 85%). In the greenhouse, Palmer amaranth accessions from Marion and Crawfordsville were 9.8 and 8.3 times more resistant to S-metolachlor compared with two susceptible accessions based on LD50 values obtained from dose–response experiments. Two-thirds and 1.5 times S-metolachlor at 1,064 g ha–1 were the estimated rates required to obtain 90% mortality of the Crawfordsville and Marion accessions, respectively. Data collected from the field and greenhouse confirm that these accessions have evolved a low level of resistance to S-metolachlor. In an agar-based assay, the level of resistance in the Marion accession was significantly reduced in the presence of a glutathione S-transferase (GST) inhibitor, suggesting that GSTs are the probable resistance mechanism. With respect to other VLCFA-inhibiting herbicides, Marion and Crawfordsville accessions were not cross-resistant to acetochlor, dimethenamid-P, or pyroxasulfone. However, both accessions, based on LD50 values obtained from greenhouse dose–response experiments, exhibited reduced sensitivity (1.5- to 3.6-fold) to the tested VLCFA-inhibiting herbicides.

Palmer amaranth accessions resistant to protoporphyrinogen oxidase (PPO), 5-enolpyruvyl-shikimate-3-phosphate synthase, and acetolactate synthase (ALS)-inhibitor herbicides are widespread in the Midsouth, making control difficult. Field experiments were conducted in Marion and Crawfordsville, AR, in 2016 and 2017 to assess PRE and POST herbicides labeled for use in corn, cotton, or soybean for control of multiresistant Palmer amaranth. Accessions at both locations were resistant to glyphosate and ALS inhibitors and segregating for both the R128 and ΔG210 PPO resistance mechanisms. Of the 15 herbicide treatments tested, only atrazine (1,120 g ai ha−1), pyroxasulfone (149 g ha−1), and flumioxazin (144 g ha−1) provided 85% or greater Palmer amaranth control 14 days after treatment (DAT). Visible control ratings at 35 DAT declined sharply, with no treatment providing more than 84% control, suggesting POST applications should be made no later than 28 DAT. Glufosinate (594 and 818 g ha−1), dicamba (560 g ae ha−1), 2,4-D plus glyphosate (784 g ae ha−1 plus 834 g ae ha−1), and paraquat (700 g ha−1) applied POST to 7- to 10-cm plants reduced Palmer amaranth density 83% or more 14 DAT. Both glyphosate (1,266 g ha−1) and pyrithiobac sodium (73 g ha−1) provided less than 7% Palmer amaranth control. Although flumioxazin alone at a labeled rate controlled Palmer amaranth 82% in the PRE experiment, PPO inhibitors by themselves applied POST provided no more than 37% control at 14 DAT. Effective foliar herbicides applied POST, including residual herbicides, should be made when Palmer amaranth are less than 10-cm tall for optimal control of these multiresistant Palmer amaranth accessions.

The role that vitamin D plays in pulmonary function remains uncertain. Epidemiological studies reported mixed findings for serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D)–pulmonary function association. We conducted the largest cross-sectional meta-analysis of the 25(OH)D–pulmonary function association to date, based on nine European ancestry (EA) cohorts (n 22 838) and five African ancestry (AA) cohorts (n 4290) in the Cohorts for Heart and Aging Research in Genomic Epidemiology Consortium. Data were analysed using linear models by cohort and ancestry. Effect modification by smoking status (current/former/never) was tested. Results were combined using fixed-effects meta-analysis. Mean serum 25(OH)D was 68 (sd 29) nmol/l for EA and 49 (sd 21) nmol/l for AA. For each 1 nmol/l higher 25(OH)D, forced expiratory volume in the 1st second (FEV1) was higher by 1·1 ml in EA (95 % CI 0·9, 1·3; P<0·0001) and 1·8 ml (95 % CI 1·1, 2·5; P<0·0001) in AA (Prace difference=0·06), and forced vital capacity (FVC) was higher by 1·3 ml in EA (95 % CI 1·0, 1·6; P<0·0001) and 1·5 ml (95 % CI 0·8, 2·3; P=0·0001) in AA (Prace difference=0·56). Among EA, the 25(OH)D–FVC association was stronger in smokers: per 1 nmol/l higher 25(OH)D, FVC was higher by 1·7 ml (95 % CI 1·1, 2·3) for current smokers and 1·7 ml (95 % CI 1·2, 2·1) for former smokers, compared with 0·8 ml (95 % CI 0·4, 1·2) for never smokers. In summary, the 25(OH)D associations with FEV1 and FVC were positive in both ancestries. In EA, a stronger association was observed for smokers compared with never smokers, which supports the importance of vitamin D in vulnerable populations.

Juvenile female Litomosoides sigmodontis secrete a protein (Juv-p120) highly modified with dimethylethanolamine (DMAE). In an attempt to establish the source of this decoration worms were pulsed with [3H]-choline and [3H]-ethanolamine and the radio-isotope labelled products analysed. Both isotope labels were successfully taken up by the worms, as demonstrated by labelling of phospholipids with [3H]-choline, being predominantly incorporated into phosphatidylcholine and [3H]-ethanolamine into phosphatidylethanolamine. Isotope labelling of phosphatidylethanolamine was particularly striking with the worms taking up ~30 times as much labelled ethanolamine as choline. It was possible to detect faint labelling of Juv-p120 with [3H]-ethanolamine after prolonged exposure periods but, unlike the situation with the phospholipids, it was much more readily labelled with [3H]-choline. When pulsing with [3H]-ethanolamine it was also possible to detect isotope-labelled phosphatidylcholine, which may ultimately account for the low levels of labelling of Juv-p120. Overall our results raise the previously unconsidered but intriguing possibility that in L. sigmodontis, choline may be the precursor of DMAE.

The longevity of filarial nematodes is dependent on secreted immunomodulatory products. Previous investigation of one such product, ES-62, has suggested a critical role for post-translationally attached phosphorylcholine (PC) moieties. In order to further investigate this, ES-62 lacking PC was produced, using the Pichia pastoris recombinant gene expression system. Unlike parasite-derived ES-62, which is tetrameric the recombinant material was found to consist of a mixture of apparently stable tetramers, dimers and monomers. Nevertheless, the recombinant protein was considered to be an adequate PC-free ES-62 as it was recognized by existing antisera against the parasite-derived protein. However, subsequent to this, recognition of parasite-derived ES-62 by antibodies produced against the recombinant protein was found to be absent. In an attempt to explain this, recombinant ES-62 was subjected to structural analysis and was found to (i) contain 3 changes in amino acid composition; (ii) demonstrate significant alterations in glycosylation; (iii) show major differences in protein secondary structure. The effects of these alterations in relation to the observed change in immunogenicity were investigated and are discussed. The data presented clearly show that recognition by existing antibodies is insufficient proof that recombinant proteins can be used to mimic parasite-derived material in studies on nematode immunology and vaccination.

Infection with filarial nematodes produces a chronic, long-lasting illness with adult worms able to survive within human hosts for up to 15 years. A contributor to the longevity of these parasites is the presence of phosphorylcholine (PC) on components of the worms' molecular secretions (ES). PC on ES modulates host immune responses towards an anti-inflammatory phenotype thereby generating an environment favourable for parasite survival. PC is attached to nematode ES via a covalent association with carbohydrate, which, although well-documented in bacteria and fungi, is absent from humans, making it an ideal target for the development of novel drugs. In order to produce such drugs it is first necessary to understand the structure and synthesis of nematode PC-glycans. ES-62 is the major PC-ES-product of Acanthocheilonema viteae and is a homologue of PC-ES found in human filarial nematodes. We have studied the structure and biosynthesis of PC-glycans of ES-62 by a combination of pulse-chase experiments, experiments involving the use of inhibitors of each of intracellular trafficking, oligosaccharide processing and phospholipid biosynthesis and various forms of mass spectrometry. Our indications indicate that PC is transferred in the lumen of the medial Golgi to an N-type glycan consisting of a trimannosyl core with or without core fucosylation bearing between 1 and 4 N-acetyl glucosamine residues. The structure of the PC-N-glycans found in ES-62 appears to be conserved amongst filarial nematodes in that it has additionally been identified in Onchocerca volvulus and O. gibsoni. Also, similar structures have been found in non-filarial parasitic nematodes and in the free-living nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. Finally, PC has also been recently found attached to the carbohydrate moieties of nematode glycosphingolipids and the structure of these will also be considered.

Previous studies have shown that the secreted phosphorylcholine-containing glycoprotein of filarial nematodes, ES-62, is only present in the post-infective life-cycle stages, but that the mRNA is transcribed throughout the worm's life-cycle. The aim of this current study was to investigate whether the presence or absence of protein expression simply reflects differences in mRNA abundance. To this end, we investigated the relative abundance of ES-62 using TaqMan real time RT-PCR, in different life-cycle stages of 2 model filarial nematode parasites, Acanthocheilonema viteae and Brugia pahangi. For B. pahangi, microfilariae, infective larvae and adult worms were each found to have approximately similar levels of ES-62 mRNA. However, the corresponding stages of A. viteae differed greatly from each other with a pattern of increased mRNA production with maturation. As a rule A. viteae had higher levels of ES-62 mRNA than B. pahangi, and this was particularly noticeable in the adult stage where the difference was approximately 3500-fold higher. However, this significant difference in mRNA abundance was not reflected in the quantity of ES-62 protein secreted by the adult worms of each species, as A. viteae only secreted ~3 times as much ES-62 as B. pahangi. Thus, overall, the results obtained from this study indicate that ES-62 protein production does not solely reflect mRNA levels, and also suggest that the 2 nematodes may employ different mechanisms for regulating protein production.

Phosphorylcholine (PC) is a common constituent of proteins secreted by filarial nematodes. As this substance has been shown to interfere with immune responses, we are interested in designing strategies for blocking its attachment. Towards this end, we are investigating the mechanism of incorporation of PC into filarial molecules and in the present manuscript we describe experiments relating to elucidating the source of PC for attachment. Synthesis of phosphatidylcholine in eukaryotic organisms can occur by a mechanism involving the transfer of PC from CDP-choline to diacylglycerol (the Kennedy pathway). By (i) measuring transfer of radio-isotope labelled PC from CDP-choline to parasite molecules and (ii) employing inhibitors of CDP-choline synthesis, we have investigated whether CDP-choline can act as a source of PC for transfer to ES–62, a major secreted glycoprotein of the rodent filarial nematode Acanthocheilonema viteae. Although we can find no evidence of this, we show that attachment of PC is blocked by hemicholinium-3, an inhibitor of choline kinase, the first enzyme in the Kennedy pathway. Thus, at least the first step in this pathway – phosphorylation of choline, would appear to be necessary for attachment of PC to ES-62.

The mechanism of linkage of phosphorylcholine (PC) to excretory–secretory products (ES) of adult Brugia pahangi has been investigated. Biosynthetic radio-isotope labelling of ES with [3H]choline followed by SDS–PAGE/fluorography revealed a smear of molecular weight approximately 40–100 kDa which loses its radiolabel following exposure to N-glycosidase F, but not mild alkali. PC is thus attached to this smear of molecules via N-type glycans, a mechanism of linkage previously observed with respect to PC–ES of Acanthocheilonema viteae. Western blotting analysis of non-radiolabelled ES demonstrated the existence of additional PC–ES which were insensitive to N-glycosidase F, but not to alkali. This second group of molecules is therefore likely to contain PC linked to O-glycans. Filarial nematodes may thus utilize 2 classes of glycan for attachment of PC. Examination of B. pahangi and A. viteae whole worm extracts by Western blotting indicated that their PC content could not be cleaved by N-glycosidase F and hence the use of N-type glycans may be restricted to a subset of ES products. The implications of these findings with respect to developing inhibitors of PC attachment for use as anti-filarial drugs are discussed.

The surface properties of diamond-like carbon (DLC) films deposited by a vacuum arc technique on smooth silicon wafers are presented with specific emphasis given to stiction reduction in microelectromechanical systems (MEMS). The low deposition temperatures afforded by the vacuum arc technique should allow for easy integration of the DLC films into the current fabrication process of typical surface micromachines by means of a standard lift-off processing technique. Using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), contact angle analysis, and atomic force microscopy (AFM), the surface chemistry, microroughness, hydrophobicity, and adhesion forces of DLC-coated Si(100) surfaces were measured and correlated to the measured water contact angles. DLC films were found to be extremely smooth and possess a water contact angle of 87°, which roughly corresponds to a surface energy of 22 mJ/m2. It is shown that the pull-off forces measured by AFM correlate well with the predicted capillary forces. Pull-off forces are reduced on DLC surfaces by about a factor of five compared to 10 nN pull-off forces measured on the RCA-cleaned silicon surfaces. In the absence of meniscus forces, the overall adhesion force is expected to decrease by over an order of magnitude to the van der Waals attractive force present between two DLC-coated surfaces- To further improve the surface properties of DLC, films were exposed to a fluorine plasma which increased the contact angle to 99° and lowered the pull-off force by approximately 20% over that obtained with as-deposited DLC. The significance of these results is discussed with respect to stiction reduction in micromachines.

Maps of accumulation rates of freshwater diatoms and opal phytoliths in the surface sediments of the Zaire fan show that both types of microfossils were supplied to the ocean floor by the Zaire River, and that opal phytoliths also have a southern source, probably the region of the Namibian desert. The PhFD ratio, of opal phytoliths to freshwater diatoms, can be regarded as an aridity index for equatorial Africa, and probably for large parts of the central and southern Atlantic. In two cores, the record of the PhFD ratio indicates humidity ca 225–190 ka BP, aridity 190–135 ka BP with maxima ca 170 and 140 ka BP and a humid excursion 150 ka BP, an increase in humidity 115 ka BP, a less humid period 90–30 ka BP, more humidity ca 30–17 ka BP with possibly more arid intervals ca 22.5 and 20 ka bp. In general, glacial (sub) stages were more arid and interglacial (sub) stages more humid. For the last 20 ka, the PhFD ratio corresponds closely with the known climatic events in tropical Africa.

During an excavation of 1986 and 1987, a joint team from Utrecht, Siena and the Soprintendenza di Sassari e Nuoro, found a pre-Neolithic lithic industry in Corbeddu Cave, Oliena, Sardinia, which was dated to 8000–17,000 bp. The artifact typology is different from that of the mainland of the same period. The lithic and bone artifacts suggest an endemic isolated economy of the Upper Pleistocene in Sardinia.

1. Cheshire, Cheddar and Stilton cheeses were made on one occasion from winter, and on another from summer, milk.

2. The distribution of vitamin A and carotenoids, vitamin B1, riboflavin and vitamin C between milk, whey and curd was measured during cheese-making.

3. The fate of these vitamins during ripening was determined.

4. Some 80% of vitamin A and carotene, 15% of vitamin B1 and 25% of riboflavin originally present in milk were recovered in the green cheese and persisted throughout ripening.

5. Vitamin C disappeared progressively during cheese-making and was absent from the cheeses.

6. Vitamin B1 and especially riboflavin were recovered in cheese in larger proportions than would be expected from the partition of water between curd and whey, indicating that they were partly present in milk in combination with the coagulable solids.

1. Full-cream unsweetened condensed milk (evaporated milk) and full-cream sweetened condensed milk (condensed milk) were prepared simultaneously on several occasions each time from a common bulk of raw milk. Heat treatment in the preparation of evaporated milk is, of course, much more severe than with condensed milk.

(a) There was no loss of vitamin A, carotene or riboflavin in either of the processes.

(b) The mean loss of vitamin C as compared with the raw milk was 10% for condensed and 60% for evaporated milk.

(c) The vitamin B1 losses were 3·5 and 27% respectively.

(d) Tests on rats showed that the biological values and true digestibilities of the proteins of the raw, condensed and evaporated milks were respectively 85·6 and 94·2, 84·6 and 98·8, 84·1 and 93·7. The differences in biological value are without statistical significance but the digestibility of the condensed milk was significantly higher than that of the other two milks.

Experiments were carried out to study the effects on the quality and nutritive value of bread of the addition to white flour of roller-dried skim milk and roller-dried whey. Both samples were typical commercial products.

Additions of 2% of the dried milk could be made without any marked effect on loaf quality or on flavour. The addition of 4% or more definitely lowered the quality of the bread, the volume being smaller and the crumb more rubbery. As the content of milk was increased above 2% the flavour of the bread became increasingly distinctive and departed from the normal neutral flavour of water bread.

Up to 5% of dried whey could be added to the flour without any marked deterioration in the crumb of the bread, although with one flour this quantity decreased the volume by 16%. At this level, however, the whey imparted a distinct cheesy flavour to the bread.

Attention is drawn to the fact that the effects produced by the addition of dried milk or whey to bread can only be considered in relation to the particular sample used, since other workers have found that modifications in the method of manufacture considerably alter the value of the product as far as its use in bread is concerned. For this reason improved types of dried milk or whey might well lead to their greater use by the baking industry.