Ensuring descriptive representation of racial minorities without packing minorities too heavily into districts is a perpetual difficulty, especially in states lacking voter file race data. One advance since the 2010 redistricting cycle is the advent of Bayesian Improved Surname Geocoding (BISG), which greatly improves upon previous ecological inference methods in identifying voter race. In this article, we test the viability of employing BISG to redistricting under two posterior allocation methods for race assignment: plurality versus probabilistic. We validate these methods through 10,000 redistricting simulations of North Carolina and Georgia’s congressional districts and compare BISG estimates to actual voter file racial data. We find that probabilistic summing of the BISG posteriors significantly reduces error rates at the precinct and district level relative to plurality racial assignment, and therefore should be the preferred method when using BISG for redistricting. Our results suggest that BISG can aid in the construction of majority-minority districts during the redistricting process.

The neuropsychological aspects of multiple sclerosis (MS) have evolved over the past three decades. What was once thought to be a rare occurrence, cognitive dysfunction is now viewed as one of the most disabling symptoms of the disease, with devastating effects on patients’ quality of life. This selective review will highlight major innovations and scientific discoveries in the areas of neuropathology, neuroimaging, diagnosis, and treatment that pertain to our understanding of the neuropsychological aspects of MS. Specifically, we focus on the recent discovery that MS produces pathogical lesions of gray matter (GM) that have consequences for cognitive functions. Methods for imaging these GM lesions in MS are discussed along with multimodal imaging studies that integrate structural and functional imaging methods to provide a better understanding of the relationship between cognitive test performance and functional reserve. Innovations in the screening and comprehensive assessment of cognitive disorders are presented along with recent research that examines cognitive dysfunction in pediatric MS. Results of innovative outcome studies in cognitive rehabilitation are discussed. Finally, we highlight trends for potential future innovations over the next decade. (JINS, 2017, 23, 832–842)

Background: Age and time post-diagnosis can significantly impact cognitive and motor functions in multiple sclerosis (MS); however, studies often fail to account for these factors when assessing differences between disease courses. Objectives: Examine differences between relapsing-remitting and progressive MS in cognition, motor function, and everyday activities, controlling for age, education, and time post-diagnosis. Methods: Twenty-one persons with relapsing-remitting MS (RRMS group), 21 with progressive MS (PMS group), and 21 healthy participants (HCs), matched on age, education, and time post-diagnosis, completed tests of cognitive abilities, motor functions, and everyday functional activities. Results: The two groups with MS did not differ on cognitive performance. Poorer performance in processing speed was noted in both MS groups in comparison with the HC group. Motor function was worse for the PMS group compared with the HC and RRMS groups. The RRMS group showed poorer upper limb functioning compared to the HC group. The PMS group had more difficulty with everyday activities as compared with both the RRMS and HC group. Conclusions: When comparing differences in functioning between MS disease courses, attention should be paid to the demographic characteristics of the samples. (JINS, 2018, 24, 139–146)

Objectives: Episodic memory deficits are both common and impactful among persons infected with HIV; however, we know little about how to improve such deficits in the laboratory or in real life. Retrieval practice, by which retrieval of newly learned material improves subsequent recall more than simple restudy, is a robust memory boosting strategy that is effective in both healthy and clinical populations. In this study, we investigated the benefits of retrieval practice in 52 people living with HIV and 21 seronegatives. Methods: In a within-subjects design, all participants studied 48 verbal paired associates in 3 learning conditions: Massed-Restudy, Spaced-Restudy, and Spaced-Testing. Retention of verbal paired associates was assessed after short- (30 min) and long- (30 days) delay intervals. Results: After a short delay, both HIV+ persons and seronegatives benefited from retrieval practice more so than massed and spaced restudy. The same pattern of results was observed specifically for HIV+ persons with clinical levels of memory impairment. The long-term retention interval data evidenced a floor effect that precluded further analysis. Conclusions: This study provides evidence that retrieval practice improves verbal episodic memory more than some other mnemonic strategies among HIV+ persons. (JINS, 2017, 23, 214–222)

It has recently been reported that individuals with multiple sclerosis (MS) are impaired on tasks requiring emotional processing and social cognition, including tasks of Theory of Mind (ToM) and facial affect recognition. The current pilot study examined the ability of individuals with MS to understand and interpret lies and sarcasm using a dynamic task: The Awareness of Social Inference Test (TASIT). Fifteen individuals with MS and 15 healthy controls (HCs) performed the Social Inference-Enriched subtest of the TASIT, in which they viewed video-taped social interactions in which lies and sarcasm are presented. Additionally, tests of cognition were also administered to better understand the relationship between specific cognitive abilities and the ability to understand lies and sarcasm. The MS group showed impairments in the ability to interpret and understand lies and sarcasm relative to HCs. These impairments were correlated with several cognitive abilities including processing speed, working memory, learning and memory, and premorbid IQ. The results indicate that the TASIT is a sensitive measure of social cognition in individuals with MS. Furthermore, performance on the TASIT was related to cognitive abilities. Results are discussed in terms of social cognition deficits in MS and how they relate to cognitive abilities. (JINS, 2016, 22, 83–88)

Recently, there has been renewed interest in the study of cognitive fatigue. It is known that fatigue is one of the most disabling symptoms in numerous neurological populations, including stroke, multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, and traumatic brain injury. Behavioral studies of cognitive fatigue are hampered by lack of correlation of self-report measures with objective performance. Neuroimaging studies provide new insight about cognitive fatigue and its neural correlates. Impairment within the cortico-striatal network, involved in effort–reward calculation, has been suggested to be critically related to fatigue. The current review surveys the recent neuroimaging literature, and suggests promising avenues for future research. (JINS, 2013, 19, 1–5)

Subjective reports of memory functioning are often included as part of neuropsychological evaluations. However, information from subjective measures often conflicts with formal testing results. The current study explored the relationships among self-reported memory functioning and objective learning and memory measures. Sixty-four multiple sclerosis (MS) patients completed a self-report memory questionnaire (Memory Functioning Questionnaire, MFQ) and objective measures of learning and memory (California Verbal Learning Test-II, CVLT-II; Open-Trial Selective Reminding Test, OT-SRT; and Prose Memory, PM). Significant positive correlations were found between self-reported memory functioning and recall following initial exposure to material: OT-SRT Trial 1 (r = .42; p = .001); CVLT-II Trial 1 (r = .39; p = .002): PM Immediate Recall (r = .28; p = .028). Subjective memory was unrelated to recall performance on subsequent learning trials, aggregate learning scores, or delayed free recall. Results suggest that self-reported memory functioning in MS patients may be specifically related to single-trial learning. (JINS, 2011, 17, 557–561)

Memory impairment is common following traumatic brain injury (TBI), but interventions to improve memory in persons with TBI have been ineffective. Retrieval practice is a robust memory strategy among healthy undergraduates, whereby practice retrieving information shortly after it is presented leads to better delayed recall than simple restudy. In a verbal paired associate paradigm, we investigated the effect of retrieval practice relative to massed and spaced restudy on delayed recall in 14 persons with chronic memory impairment following a TBI and 14 age-matched healthy controls. A significant learning condition (massed restudy, spaced restudy, retrieval practice) by group (TBI, healthy) interaction emerged, whereby only healthy controls benefited from spaced restudy (i.e., distributed learning) over massed restudy, but both groups greatly benefited from retrieval practice over massed and spaced restudy. That is, retrieval practice greatly improves memory in persons with TBI, even when other mnemonic strategies (e.g., distributed learning) are less effective. (JINS, 2010, 16, 1147–1150.)

According to the cognitive reserve hypothesis, neuropsychological expression of brain disease is attenuated among persons with higher education or premorbid intelligence. The current research examined cognitive reserve in multiple sclerosis (MS) by investigating whether the negative effect of brain atrophy on information processing (IP) efficiency is moderated by premorbid intelligence. Thirty-eight persons with clinically definite MS completed a vocabulary-based estimate of premorbid intelligence (Wechsler Vocabulary) and a composite measure of IP efficiency (Symbol Digit Modalities Test and Paced Auditory Serial Addition Task). Brain atrophy was estimated from measurements of third ventricle width using high-resolution anatomical brain magnetic resonance imaging (magnetization-prepared rapid gradient echo). In a hierarchical regression analysis controlling for age and depressive symptomatology, brain atrophy predicted worse IP efficiency (R2 = .23, p = .003) and cognitive reserve predicted better IP efficiency (R2 = .13, p = .013), but these effects were moderated by an Atrophy × Cognitive Reserve interaction (R2 = .15, p = .004). The negative effect of brain atrophy on IP efficiency was attenuated at higher levels of reserve, such that MS subjects with higher reserve were better able to withstand MS neuropathology without suffering cognitive impairment. Results help explain the incomplete and inconsistent relationship between brain atrophy and IP efficiency in previous research. (JINS, 2009, 15, 606–612.)

Although it is known that processing speed deficits are one of the primary cognitive impairments in multiple sclerosis (MS), the underlying neural mechanisms responsible for impaired processing speed remain undetermined. Using BOLD functional magnetic resonance imaging, the current study compared the brain activity of 16 individuals with MS to 17 healthy controls (HCs) during performance of a processing speed task, a modified version of the Symbol Digit Modalities Task. Although there were no differences in performance accuracy, the MS group was significantly slower than HCs. Although both groups showed similar activation involving the precentral gyrus and occipital cortex, the MS showed significantly less cerebral activity than HCs in bilateral frontal and parietal regions, similar to what has been reported in aging samples during speeded tasks. In the HC group, processing speed was mediated by frontal and parietal regions, as well as the cerebellum and thalamus. In the MS group, processing speed was mediated by insula, thalamus and anterior cingulate. It therefore appears that neural networks involved in processing speed differ between MS and HCs, and our findings are similar to what has been reported in aging, where damage to both white and gray matter is linked to processing speed impairments (JINS, 2009, 15, 383–393).

Brain Fiction: Self-deception and the Riddle of Confabulation, by William Hirstein. (2005). Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. 289 pp., $35.00.

Why do some patients with brain damage construct seemingly false answers to questions, which they believe are true and accurate? Such confabulation is the topic examined in this book. Not only does Dr. Hirstein integrate the anatomical, neurological, and neuropsychological knowledge accumulated thus far on confabulation, but his training as both a neuroscientist and a philosopher provides a unique perspective on confabulation by integrating issues broadly related to the philosophy of the mind. What is also proposed in this well written book is the notion that elements of confabulation can be seen in healthy individuals and in persons with disorders less overtly neurological in nature than those with clearly documented neurological disorder.

The degree of neuropsychological dysfunction across multiple domains was examined in individuals suffering from chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS). In this descriptive study, a similar series of neuropsychological tests was administered to a group of CFS patients and healthy participants. More specifically, CFS patients (n = 141) who met the 1994 Case Definition criteria were compared to 76 healthy control participants on tests of memory, attention (concentration), speed of information processing, motor speed, and executive functioning. On the 18 measures administered, CFS patients scored 1 standard deviation below the healthy mean on nine measures and scored 2 standard deviations below the healthy mean on four of the measures. Moreover, results indicated that CFS patients were more likely than healthy controls to fail (1.6 SD below the healthy mean) at least one test in each of the following domains: attention, speed of information processing, and motor speed, but not on measures of memory and executive functioning. Finally, CFS patients demonstrated a greater total number of tests failed across domains. (JINS, 2004, 10, 278–285.)

To examine the relative influence of speed of information processing versus working memory ability, CFS participants with psychiatric comorbidity (CFS–Psych) and CFS without a psychiatric history (CFS–noPsych) were examined on tests of visual and auditory processing speed and visual and auditory working memory. Compared to healthy controls (HC) and a group of participants with rheumatoid arthritis (RA), the CFS–noPsych group displayed significantly reduced performance on tests of information processing speed, but not on tests of working memory. No significant differences were observed between the CFS–Psych group and any other group in the study. The implications of group heterogeneity on the understanding of cognitive impairment in CFS are discussed. (JINS, 2004, 10, 101–109.)

Superconducting Tl–Ca–Ba–Cu–oxide films have been prepared on yttria stabilized zirconia substrates via the reaction of Tl2O vapor with precursor Ca–Ba–Cu–oxide films prepared by the spray pyrolysis of a solution of the metal nitrates. The vapor reaction process, evaluated in both air and oxygen ambients, was carried out in a two-zone reactor which permitted the independent control of the temperatures of the sample and of a boat containing thallium oxide. Sample temperatures of 865–905 °C and boat temperatures of 775–870 °C were investigated. X-ray diffraction analysis of the best samples, which were prepared in an oxygen ambient at sample temperatures of 895–900 °C and boat temperatures of 805–810 °C, revealed the presence of a highly oriented Tl2Ca2Ba2Cu3O10+y phase with a trace of the Tl2CaBa2Cu2O8+y phase. FWHM's of ∼2°θ were obtained in x-ray rocking curve analyses of the oriented 2223 phase. Tc (0) values of 95–105 K were measured for the better samples, and a zero field critical current density of 28 800 amps/cm2 was measured at 77 K for the best sample. SEM micrographs taken of the highest Jc samples reveal a highly textured structure consisting of platelike crystals.