Clays can act as osmotic membranes and thus give rise to osmotically induced hydrostatic pressures. The magnitude of generated osmotic pressures in geologic systems is governed by the theoretical osmotic pressure calculated solely from solution properties and by value of the membrane's three phe-nomenological coefficients: the hydraulic permeability coefficient, Lp; the reflection coefficient, σ; and the solute permeability coefficient, ω. Generally, low values of Lp correspond to highly compacted membranes in which σ is near unity and ω approaches zero. Such membrane systems should give rise to initially high osmotic fluxes and gradual dissipation of their osmotic potentials.

The high fluid pressures in the Dunbarton Triassic basin, South Carolina, are a good example of osmotically induced potentials. A unique osmotic cell is created by the juxtaposition of fresh water in the overlying Cretaceous sediments against the saline pore water housed within the membrane-functioning sediments of the Triassic basin. Because wells penetrating the saline core of the basin show anomalously high heads relative to wells penetrating the basin margins, the longevity of this osmotic cell is probably dictated by the rate at which salt diffuses out into the overlying fresh water aquifer.

Alteration experiments have been performed using RTT7 and synthetic basaltic glasses in MgCl2−CaCl2 salt solution at 190°C. The duration of experiments ranged from 0.25 to 463 days. The alteration products were studied by Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), Scanning Transmission Electron Microscope (STEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Electron Spectrometry for Chemical Analysis (ESCA). For both glasses, the early alteration product is a hydrotalcite-like compound [Mg6Al2CO3(OH)16·4H2O] in which HPO42−, SO42− and Cl− substitutes for CO32−. The measured basal spacing is 7.68 Å for the hydrotalcite formed from R7T7 glass and 7.62 Å for the hydrotalcite formed from basaltic glass which reflect the high Al/Al + Mg ratios x (0.34 ≤ x ≤ 0.46). The chemical microanalyses show that the hydrotalcite is subsequently covered by a silica-rich gel which evolves into saponite after a few months. These results support the use of basaltic glasses alteration patterns in Mg-rich solution, to understand the long-term behavior of R7T7 nuclear waste glass.

Transgression by the Western Interior Sea during the Late Cretaceous in southwestern Minnesota caused swampy conditions to be imposed upon a laterite consisting of gibbsite, goethite and kaolinite. Reducing conditions overprinted upon the laterite reduced ferric Fe in goethite for incorporation of ferrous Fe into Fe-berthierine. Attendant oxidation of organic matter provided CO2 for siderite's formation. Thermodynamic calculations indicate that berthierine, gibbsite, goethite, kaolinite and siderite were in equilibrium with a solution whose pH was 5.2 and whose pCO2 was on the order of 0.3 atm. Formation of Fe-berthierine is favored by solutions having: 1) low silica concentration; 2) low [Mg2+]/[Fe2+] ratio; 3) high pCO2; 4) extremely low sulfate content before reduction takes place; and 5) moderate reducing conditions (Eh around −0.05 V).

An Fe-berthierine occurs in a buried laterite from the Late Cretaceous (Cenomanian) in southwestern Minnesota. It formed beneath a lignitic horizon in which reducing solutions percolated through a laterite comprising gibbsite, kaolinite and goethite. Morphologic differences suggest 2 separate conditions of Fe-berthierine formation. Early forms of Fe-berthierine include radial bladed or radial blocky crystallites coating pisoids, along with alteration of kaolinite at crystal boundaries. These morphologies formed in the vadose zone. Later forms precipitated under subaqueous conditions as macroscopic, pore-filling cement. The large size of the later-formed Fe-berthierines enabled microprobe characterization. This 1st reported occurrence of Mg-free berthierine has a structural formula close to an idealized Fe-berthierine: Fe2Al2SiO5(OH)4. Apart from their chemistry, the unique feature of the Minnesota Fe-berthierines is their formation in an exclusive nonmarine depositional environment. They formed in situ as part of a lateritic weathering profile developed on a broad, low relief peneplain. Physical evidence of formation under nonmarine conditions includes the presence of 1) scattered lignitic fragments; 2) concretions forming casts and molds of woody material; and 3) a nonmarine fossil (Unio sp. undet). Chemical evidence includes siderites collected from the berthierine-bearing horizon having stable isotope values indicating freshwater formation.

Commercial activity and regulatory oversight of the digital economy are growing apace. This essay argues that regulatory heterogeneity can deter digital trade without discrimination. Domestic policies that are not discriminatory can still result in fragmentation of the global digital economy, if sufficiently heterogeneous. We find that rules at the World Trade Organization (WTO) and in digital trade agreements offer important directions but insufficiently mitigate heterogeneity. We suggest that heterogeneity should be addressed through the progressive expansion of international trade law. We emphasize the importance of encouraging regulatory coherence and pre-empting the formation of digital blocks.

Predictions of species-level extinction risk from climate change are mostly based on species distribution models (SDMs). Reviewing the literature, we summarise why the translation of SDM results to extinction risk is conceptually and methodologically challenged and why critical SDM assumptions are unlikely to be met under climate change. Published SDM-derived extinction estimates are based on a positive relationship between range size decline and extinction risk, which empirically is not well understood. Importantly, the classification criteria used by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species were not meant for this purpose and are often misused. Future predictive studies would profit considerably from a better understanding of the extinction risk–range decline relationship, particularly regarding the persistence and non-random distribution of the few last individuals in dwindling populations. Nevertheless, in the face of the ongoing climate and biodiversity crises, there is a high demand for predictions of future extinction risks. Despite prevailing challenges, we agree that SDMs currently provide the most accessible method to assess climate-related extinction risk across multiple species. We summarise current good practice in how SDMs can serve to classify species into IUCN extinction risk categories and predict whether a species is likely to become threatened under future climate. However, the uncertainties associated with translating predicted range declines into quantitative extinction risk need to be adequately communicated and extinction predictions should only be attempted with carefully conducted SDMs that openly communicate the limitations and uncertainty.

Captive chimpanzees fed at regular, predictable intervals are known to exhibit higher rates of aggression immediately prior to, and during feeding. Presumably, anticipation of food creates tensions leading to increased agonistic interactions prior to feeding. This study was conducted to determine if seasonal variabilities might contribute to pre-feeding agonism. A quantitative examination was made looking at events affected by seasonal (summer versus autumn) changes. Seasonal fruit diversity and the amount of available space during feeding bouts in socially housed, captive chimpanzees were tested for an effect on pre-feeding agonism. Groups were observed for a five-week period during both seasons. Each social group was observed five times per season for 30 minutes, beginning 30 minutes prior to the morning feeding. All occurrences of agonistic behaviours were recorded. Average frequencies of agonistic behaviours were calculated for each group and compared across season using a Wilcoxon matched-pairs test to determine the effect of seasonal fluctuations in fruit diversity. There were no significant differences in the number of agonistic behaviours exhibited during summer versus autumn seasons. A strong negative correlation was found for agonistic behaviours in both seasons: as space decreased, agonism increased in both summer and autumn. In addition, males scored significantly higher in the summer versus the autumn for submissive behaviours when space decreased. The provision of a variety of seasonal fruits did not result in increased pre-feeding agonism in captive chimpanzees. In fact, cage size had a greater effect on levels of agonism than did the provision of seasonal fruits.

The northern bald ibis Geronticus eremita was once widespread throughout the Middle East, northern Africa, and southern and central Europe. Habitat destruction, persecution and the impacts of pesticides have led to its disappearance from most of its former range. It disappeared from central Europe > 400 years ago, but has persisted as a relict and slowly growing breeding population in Morocco, where c. 700 wild birds of all ages remain. In Algeria, the last confirmed breeding was in 1984; in Turkey the fully wild population disappeared in 1989, but a population remains in semi-wild conditions. In Syria a small population was rediscovered in 2002, only to subsequently decline to functional extinction. Restoration programmes have been initiated independently in several locations, with over 300 free-flying birds resulting from reintroduction projects in Austria, Germany, Spain and Turkey, to restore both sedentary and fully migratory populations. Maintaining current efforts in Morocco remains a high conservation priority.

Different types of biogenic remains, ranging from siliceous algae to carbonate precipitates, accumulate in the sediments of lakes and other aquatic ecosystems. Unicellular algae called diatoms, which form a siliceous test or frustule, are an ecologically and biogeochemically important group of organisms in aquatic environments and are often preserved in lake or marine sediments. When diatoms accumulate in large numbers in sediments, the fossilized remains can form diatomite. In sedimentological literature, “diatomite” is defined as a friable, light-coloured, sedimentary rock with a diatom content of at least 50%, however, in the Quaternary science literature diatomite is commonly used as a description of a sediment type that contains a “large” quantity of diatom frustules without a precise description of diatom abundance. Here we pose the question: What is diatomite? What quantity of diatoms define a sediment as diatomite? Is it an uncompacted sediment or a compacted sediment? We provide a short overview of prior practices and suggest that sediment with more than 50% of sediment weight comprised of diatom SiO2 and having high (>70%) porosity is diatomaceous ooze if unconsolidated and diatomite if consolidated. Greater burial depth and higher temperatures result in porosity loss and recrystallization into porcelanite, chert, and pure quartz.

Response patterns derived from dichotomized (0/1) weekly CGI ratings conducted in antidepressant drug trials (Quitkin et al, 1984) were compared with those found in the pooled data from several randomized double-blind trials comparing the relative efficacy and tolerability low-dose flupenthixol im with that of three trieyclics (amitriptyline sr, imipramine, doxepine). Using the configurational frequency analysis (Krauth and Lienert, 1973), the postulated patterns could be rediscovered in our data apart from “early onset persistent patterns” which were less frequent in Quitkin et al's (1984) drug data. However, apart from this finding no “typical” patterns in terms of drug- or placebo-dependent response patterns could be detected in either the flupenthixol or Quitkin et al's (1984) data. It is concluded that there is little empirical evidence for the assumption of placebo- or drug related change- or response patterns. Moreover, theoretical aspects do not support the usefulness of such concepts.

Negative computer attitude has been shown to be a possible co-variable in computerized examinations of psychiatric patients, affecting patient-computer interaction as well as reliability and validity of assessment (Weber et al. 2002, Acta Psychiatr.Scand., 105, 126-130).

It remains still uncertain if the psychological construct of computer attitude can be dependably measured in acute psychiatric inpatients or whether it is impeded by the effects of mental illness. For that reason a German translation of the Groningen Computer Attitude Scale (GCAS) was evaluated in 160 acute psychiatric inpatients under naturalistic conditions.

General test criteria (internal structure, item analysis, internal consistency, split half reliability) to a large extent corresponded to those formerly found in healthy subjects and psychiatric outpatients. The mean GCAS score was calculated as 56.2 ± 10.8 points and a significantly better computer attitude was found in male, better educated and younger patients. Some diverging correlation patterns were found in diagnostic subgroups, indicating a possible minor impact of mental disorder on computer attitude.

Overall, the GCAS was found to be a suitable instrument for measuring computer attitude in acute psychiatric inpatients. It should be used in identifying patients with a negative attitude to computers in order to ensure reliability and validity of computerized assessment.

The introduction of 2,4-D–resistant soybean and cotton provided growers a new POST active ingredient to include in weed management programs. The technology raises concerns regarding potential 2,4-D off-target movement to sensitive vegetation, and spray droplet size is the primary management factor focused on to reduce spray particle drift. The objective of this study was to investigate the droplet size distribution, droplet velocity, and particle drift potential of glyphosate plus 2,4-D choline pre-mixture (Enlist Duo®) applications with two commonly used venturi nozzles in a low-speed wind tunnel. Applications with the TDXL11004 nozzle had larger DV0.1 (291 µm), DV0.5 (544 µm), and DV0.9 (825 µm) values compared with the AIXR11004 nozzle (250, 464, and 709 µm, respectively), and slower average droplet velocity (8.1 m s−1) compared with the AIXR11004 nozzle (9.1 m s−1). Nozzle type had no influence on drift deposition (P = 0.65), drift coverage (P = 0.84), and soybean biomass reduction (P = 0.76). Although the TDXL11004 nozzle had larger spray droplet size, the slower spray droplet velocity could have influenced the nozzle particle drift potential. As a result, both TDXL11004 and AIXR11004 nozzles had similar spray drift potential. Further studies are necessary to understand the impact of droplet velocity on drift potential at field scale and test how different tank solutions, sprayer configurations, and environmental conditions could influence the droplet size and velocity dynamics and consequent drift potential in pesticide applications.