Heidegger regards movement not as a transition between states, but as a basic mode of being, and as such it plays an important role in his ontology (GA18:304; GA65:194). In this respect, Heidegger is following Aristotle’s lead – the significance of movement for Heidegger can be traced back to Aristotle’s observation that all natural entities (phusei onta) are characterized by movement in one way or another (GA19:103).

Written by Lucretius in the first century BCE, De Rerum Natura is an elaboration of Epicurean atomism that ranges over the origin of the universe, the formation of worlds, weather systems, the emergence of life and of social order, morality, and much else besides. It can be picked over for interesting anticipations of modern atomism and of evolutionary theory. Yet, as a materialist account of the emergence of order, it depends on an account of causality and law which has some surprises, and it is on these that I want to focus here. The familiar image of atoms moving and combining may lead one to expect that order in the universe depends ultimately on fixed laws governing the movement of atoms. Although there are some grounds for such a reading, they are not compelling, and Lucretius is otherwise quite clear that order consists of regularities that arise locally, varying from time to time and from place to place. That this theory of local regularities has been eclipsed by the assumption that laws are fixed says more about our own views than those of Lucretius. From the standpoint of contemporary approaches to causality, Lucretius’ account can be described as a regularity theory, where the regularities in question are a feature of the world (and not just of our perception of it). But it is distinctive in that cause and effect do not always and everywhere proceed according to the same invariable laws. Instead, causality precedes laws, which, as regularities, emerge locally and evolve along with the phenomena they determine. The causal structure of the universe is therefore real, but radically contingent. This idea sets Lucretius’ account apart from almost all existing theories of causality and law. Notable exceptions can be found in the work of Charles Sanders Peirce, to some extent in that of Émile Boutroux, and in certain quarters of contemporary cosmology. For example, Peirce writes that “there is room for serious doubt whether the fundamental laws of mechanics hold good for single atoms,” and advises that science turn its attention to “a natural history of laws of nature.” On his part, Boutroux declares that “it is chance, or destiny, or an ensemble of capricious wills, that presides in the universe.”

Written by Lucretius in the first century BCE, De Rerum Natura is an elaboration of Epicurean atomism that ranges over the origin of the universe, the formation of worlds, weather systems, the emergence of life and of social order, morality, and much else besides. It can be picked over for interesting anticipations of modern atomism and of evolutionary theory. Yet, as a materialist account of the emergence of order, it depends on an account of causality and law which has some surprises, and it is on these that I want to focus here. The familiar image of atoms moving and combining may lead one to expect that order in the universe depends ultimately on fixed laws governing the movement of atoms. Although there are some grounds for such a reading, they are not compelling, and Lucretius is otherwise quite clear that order consists of regularities that arise locally, varying from time to time and from place to place. That this theory of local regularities has been eclipsed by the assumption that laws are fixed says more about our own views than those of Lucretius. From the standpoint of contemporary approaches to causality, Lucretius’ account can be described as a regularity theory, where the regularities in question are a feature of the world (and not just of our perception of it). But it is distinctive in that cause and effect do not always and everywhere proceed according to the same invariable laws. Instead, causality precedes laws, which, as regularities, emerge locally and evolve along with the phenomena they determine. The causal structure of the universe is therefore real, but radically contingent. This idea sets Lucretius’ account apart from almost all existing theories of causality and law. Notable exceptions can be found in the work of Charles Sanders Peirce, to some extent in that of Émile Boutroux, and in certain quarters of contemporary cosmology. For example, Peirce writes that “there is room for serious doubt whether the fundamental laws of mechanics hold good for single atoms,” and advises that science turn its attention to “a natural history of laws of nature.” On his part, Boutroux declares that “it is chance, or destiny, or an ensemble of capricious wills, that presides in the universe.”

Summary

Australia has a spectacular and diverse reptile fauna approaching 1000 species, 93% of which are endemic to the continent. Despite this, there is a paucity of information on the biology of Australian reptiles compared with mammals and birds. The single greatest threat to Australian reptiles is the removal of native vegetation, most of which has occurred in the state of Queensland during the past few decades. Since European settlement in Australia, land clearing for stock grazing and other agricultural activities has reduced the extent of native vegetation, and resulted in extensive habitat fragmentation. Ultimately, habitat fragmentation leads to species loss and local extinctions. Other threats to Australian reptiles include livestock grazing, which occurs on 55% of the continent, coupled with changing fire regimes and predation by exotic predators, especially foxes and feral cats. Currently, we know little about the long-term impacts of pastoralism, fire and introduced predators on reptile communities. The conservation of Australian reptiles requires urgent changes in government policy to reduce rates of vegetation clearing. A critical challenge is the conservation of reptiles in the vast arid and semi-arid regions, where reptile diversity is remarkably high. This will require coordinated management of threatening processes across multiple land tenures, including pastoral leases, crown lands, Aboriginal lands and conservation reserves. In southern Australia, the conservation of reptiles in fragmented landscapes will require strategic tree planting to increase the sizes of habitat remnants and their connectivity, in addition to retaining important structural habitat features such as rock outcrops, old growth trees and fallen timber. In addition to in situ conservation practices, breeding programmes are being employed to prevent the extinction of imperilled species.

Abstract

This chapter examines gender differences in socioeconomic attainment and wellbeing among English men and women born in the first half of the 20th century using the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing (ELSA). We find a fairly traditional picture of gender difference. Women’s attainment in education and occupational class was significantly and substantially lower than that of men, and there was no evidence of a decrease in these gender differences with each subsequent birth cohort. A steadily decreasing gender differential was seen in the number of years men and women spent in paid work, however. Relationships between family forms and socioeconomic attainment ran in opposite directions for men and women. Non-normative family forms, such as never having lived with a spouse/partner or not having children, were associated with higher socioeconomic attainment for women, but lower socioeconomic attainment for men. Results suggest that recent reductions seen in gender inequality have been not so much a gentle shift over the course of the century, but the result of relatively swift and dramatic social change. For the cohorts of men and women who represent our current ageing population, gender inequality in education and occupation was deeply entrenched.