Introduction

This chapter proposes a novel framework for the influence of heuristics and biases on the allocation of resources and sanctions by frontline workers. Under the heading of ‘Behavioural Public Administration’ (BPA), scholars increasingly engage in ‘the analysis of public administration from the microlevel perspective of individual behavior and attitudes by drawing on insights from psychology’ (Grimmelijkhuijsen et al, 2017). We focus on frontline workers, also called street-level bureaucrats or policy professionals, who are involved in either the delivery of public services, for example welfare or education providers, or the allocation of sanctions, such as police officers or inspectors. Street-level work entails direct social interactions with policy target groups, or clients, such as welfare applicants, students, car drivers, or farmers. Clearly, this interaction is not merely a rational, technocratic process. Yet, the ‘human factors’ that characterise these processes remain remarkably undertheorised (Winter, 2012; Saetren, 2014).

Frontline workers ‘cope’ with work demands that typically exceed the limited time and resources available to them (Lipsky, 1980; Maynard-Moody and Musheno, 2000; Tummers et al, 2015 a, b). In such a context streetlevel bureaucrats use heuristics and biases to aid decision-making (Jilke and Tummers, 2018; Harrits, 2019). Accordingly, the policies ‘in action’ can diverge significantly from the policy ‘on paper’ (Gofen, 2014). BPA-inspired research has undoubtedly fostered progress in our understanding of the micromechanisms that drive frontline policy implementation (Grimmelijkhuijsen et al, 2017; James et al, 2017). For example, inspectors have different ‘styles’ of enforcing public policies (May and Wood, 2003; Rutz et al, 2017; de Boer, 2018; de Boer et al, 2018). Or, frontline workers can feel ‘alienated’ from the policies they should implement (Tummers, 2011; Loyens, 2015; Thomann et al, 2018b). Frontline bureaucrats’ actions may be influenced by the extent to which they share the political ideologies of their principals (Lee and Park, 2020). However, the full potential of behavioural insights to explain streetlevel behaviour including direct impacts on clients has not yet been exploited.

Frontline workers who put democratically decided upon public policies into practice have more direct social impact than other bureaucrats: citizens usually have their most direct experience with ‘the state’ through them.