Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-mp689 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-24T08:23:01.568Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

3 - Evolution of Ecosystem Science to Advance Science and Society in the Twenty-First Century

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  25 February 2021

By
David C. Coleman ,
Eldor A. Paul ,
Stacy Lynn  and
Thomas Rosswall
Edited by
Robert G. Woodmansee ,
John C. Moore ,
Dennis S. Ojima  and
Laurie Richards
Robert G. Woodmansee
Affiliation:
Colorado State University
John C. Moore
Affiliation:
Colorado State University
Dennis S. Ojima
Affiliation:
Colorado State University
Laurie Richards
Affiliation:
Colorado State University
Get access

Summary

“Leaders stand on the shoulders of those who came before them” (paraphrased from Bernard of Chartres and Isaac Newton among others) and they depend on those around them to hold them up. The evolution of ecosystem science is traced in this chapter from its conceptual beginnings in the late 1500s (and earlier) until now. The importance of “giants” in soil science, botany, chemistry, zoology, and microbiology in establishing the scientific basis for what later would become “ecology” and later yet “ecosystem science” is emphasized. As the science evolved toward the study of the structure and functioning of ecosystems, relying heavily on the systems ecology paradigm and especially as humans became recognized as integral parts thereof, research philosophy and methodology needed to change. Science needed to evolve from individual scientists (giants) with reductionist perspectives to transdisciplinary and interdisciplinary teams of scientists with leaders (often multiple leaders) having holistic, systems thinking perspectives buttressed by cadres of collaborators and technical and administrative supporters, often from many locations nationally and internationally. Now teams are beginning to include social sciences, economists, education and engagement specialists, managers, decision-makers, and other stakeholders.

Keywords

origin of ecosystem sciencehistory of ecosystem sciencesoil science and systems ecologyinterdisciplinary ecological researchinternational collaboration in ecosystem sciencesocial-ecological systemsInternational Biological Program Grassland Biome
Type
Chapter
Information
Natural Resource Management Reimagined
Using the Systems Ecology Paradigm
 , pp. 66 - 89
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2021

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Anderson, J. F., and Domsch, K. H. (1980). Quantities of plant nutrients in the microbial biomass of selected soils. Soil Science, 130, 211–16.Google Scholar
Anderson, R. V., Elliott, E. T., McClellan, J. F., et al. (1978). Trophic interactions in soils as they affect energy flow and nutrient dynamics III: Biotic interactions of bacteria, amoebae and nematodes. Microbial Ecology, 4, 361–71.Google Scholar
Andrén, O., Lindberg, T., Paustian, K., and Rosswall, T., eds. (1990). Ecology of Arable Land: Organisms, Carbon and Nitrogen Cycling. Ecological Bulletin, 40. Copenhagen: Munksgaard International, 85–126.Google Scholar
Aronova, E., Baker, K. S., and Oreskes, N. (2010). Big science and big data in biology: From the IGY through the IBP to the LTER, 1957–present. Historical Studies in the Natural Sciences, 40, 183–224.Google Scholar
Bardgett, R. (2005). The Biology of Soil: A Community and Ecosystem Approach. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Baron, J., and Galvin, K. A. (1990). Future directions of ecosystem science. BioScience, 40, 640–2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bizikova, L., Robinson, J., and Cohen, S. (2007). Linking climate change and sustainable development at the local level. Climate Policy, 7, 271–7.Google Scholar
Bliss, L. C., Heal, O. W., and Moore, J. J., eds. (1981). Tundra Ecosystems: A Comparative Analysis. IBP Publication No. 25. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Bolin, B., Degens, E. T., Kempe, S., and Ketner, P., ed. (1979). The Global Carbon Cycle. SCOPE Report 13, Chichester, New York, Brisbane, Toronto: John Wiley and Sons.Google Scholar
Bondre, N. (2015). Towards Future Earth. Global Change Newsletter, 84, 32–5.Google Scholar
Bormann, F. H., and Likens, G. E. (1967). Nutrient Cycling. Science, 155, 424–9.Google Scholar
Bowen, S., ed. (1972). Proceedings 1972 Tundra Biome Symposium. US IBP Tundra Biome Report, July 1972. Hanover, NH: USA-CRREL.Google Scholar
Brady, N. C. (1984). The Nature and Properties of Soils, 9th edn. New York: Macmillan Publishing.Google Scholar
Breymeyer, A. I. (1980). Trophic structure and relationships. In Grasslands, System Analysis and Man, ed. Breymeyer, A. I. and Van Dyne, G. M.. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 799–819.Google Scholar
Breymeyer, A. I., and Van Dyne, G. M. (1980). Grasslands, System Analysis and Man. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Brock, W. H. (1997). Justus von Liebig: The Chemical Gatekeeper. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Burke, I. C., Lauenroth, W. K., and Wesman, C. A. (1998). Progress in Understanding Biogeochemical Cycles at Regional to Global Scales! Successes, Limitations, and Frontiers in Ecosystem Science. New York: Springer Verlag, 165–94.Google Scholar
Burke, I. C., Yonkers, C. M., Parton, W. J., Cole, C. V., and Schimel, D. S. (1989). Texture, climate, and cultivation effects on soil organic matter content in U.S. grassland soils. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 53, 800–5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Callahan, J. T. (1984). Long-term ecological research. BioScience, 34, 363–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Canadell, J. G., Pataki, D. E., and Pitelka, L. F., eds. (2007). Terrestrial Ecosystems in a Changing World. New York: Springer Verlag.Google Scholar
Carpenter, S. R., Mooney, H. A., Agard, J., et al. (2009). Science for managing ecosystem services: Beyond the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 106(5), 1305–12.Google Scholar
Cheeke, T. E., Coleman, D. C., and Wall, D. H., eds. (2013). Microbial Ecology of Sustainable Agroecosystems. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.Google Scholar
Clark, F. E. (1977). Internal cycling of 15N in shortgrass prairie. Ecology, 58, 1322–33.Google Scholar
Clark, F. E., and Paul, E. A. (1970). The microflora of grassland. Advances in Agronomy, 22, 375–435.Google Scholar
Clark, F. E., Cole, C. V., and Bowman, R. A. (1980). Nutrient cycling. In Grassland System Analysis and Man, International Biological Programme 19, ed. Breymeyer, A. I. and Van Dyne, G. M.. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 659–712.Google Scholar
Clark, F. E., and Rosswall, T., ed. (1981). Terrestrial Nitrogen Cycles: Processes, Ecosystem, Strategies and Management Impacts. Ecological Bulletin, 33. Stockholm: Swedish Natural Science Research Council.Google Scholar
Coleman, D. C. (2010). Big Ecology: The Emergence of Ecosystem Science. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Coleman, D. C., Callaham, M., and Crossley, D. A. (2018). Fundamentals of Soil Ecology, 3rd edn. San Diego: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Coleman, D. C., and Fry, B., ed. (1991). Carbon Isotope Techniques in Plant, Soil, and Aquatic Biology. San Diego: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Coleman, D. C., Hendrix, P. F., and Odum, E. P. (1998). Ecosystem health: An overview. In Soil Chemistry and Ecosystem Health, ed. Wang, P. H.. Special Publication No. 52. Madison, WI: Soil Science Society of America, 1–20.Google Scholar
Coleman, D. C., Reid, C. P. P., and Cole, C. V. (1983). Biological strategies of nutrient cycling in soil systems. Advances in Ecological Research, 13, 1–55.Google Scholar
Coleman, D. C., Sasson, A., Breymeyer, A. I., et al. (1980). Decomposers subsystem. In Grasslands, System Analysis and Man, ed. Breymeyer, A. I. and Van Dyne, G. M.. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 609–55.Google Scholar
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) (2000). CBD Convention of the Parties (COP) 5th meeting, Decision V/6.Google Scholar
Coppock, D. L., Detling, J. K., and Dyer, M. I. (1980). Interactions among Bison, Prairie Dogs, and Vegetation in Wind Cave National Park. Final report to National Park Service, Wind Cave National Park, Hot Springs, S.D.Google Scholar
Costanza, R., d’Arge, R., de Groot, R., et al. (1997). The value of the world’s ecosystem services and natural capital. Nature, 387, 253–60.Google Scholar
Costanza, R., de Groot, R., Braat, L., et al. (2017). Twenty years of ecosystem services: How far have we come and how far do we still need to go? Ecosystem Services, 28, 1–16.Google Scholar
Coughenour, M. B., Kittel, T. G. F., Pielke, R. A., and Eastman, J. (1993). Grassland/Atmosphere Response to Changing Climate: Coupling Regional and Local Scales. Final Report to US Deptartment of Energy, DOE/ER 60932-3.Google Scholar
Coughenour, M. B., Parton, W. J., Lauenroth, W. K., Dodd, J. L., and Woodmansee, R. G. (1980). Simulation of a grassland sulfur-cycle. Ecological Modeling, 9, 179–213.Google Scholar
Coupland, R. T. (1979). Grassland Ecosystems of the World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Cowling, D. W. (1977). Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Sulphur: Global Cycles (SCOPE Report 7), ed. Svensson, B. H. and Söderlund, R.. Ecological Bulletin, 22. Stockholm: Swedish Natural Science Research Council.Google Scholar
Crutzen, P. J., and Stoermer, E. F. (2000). The “Anthropocene.” Global Change Newsletter, 41, 17–18.Google Scholar
Dahlman, R., and Kucera, C. (1968). Tagging native grassland vegetation with carbon-14. Ecology, 49, 1199–203.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Daily, G. C. (1997). Nature’s Services: Societal Dependence on Natural Ecosystems. Washington, DC: Island Press.Google Scholar
Darwin, C. (1837). On the formation of mold. Transactions Geological Society of London, 5, 505.Google Scholar
Darwin, C. (1881). The Formation of Vegetable Mold through the Action of Worms with Observations of Their Habits, ed. Murray, J.. London: Wallace Clowes and Sons.Google Scholar
DeFries, R., and Nagendra, H. (2017). Ecosystem management as a wicked problem. Science, 356, 265–70.Google Scholar
De Groot, R., Brander, L., van der Ploeg, S., et al. (2012). Global estimates of the value of ecosystems and their services in monetary units. Ecosystem Services, 1, 50–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Diaz, S., Pasenal, U., Stenseke, M., et al. (2018). Assessing nature’s contributions to people. Science, 359, 270–3.Google Scholar
Duvigneaud, P., ed. (1971). Productivity of Forest Ecosystems: Proceedings of the Brussels Symposium. Paris: Unesco.Google Scholar
Dyer, M. I., and Bokhari, U. G. (1976). Plant–animal interactions: Studies of the effects of grasshopper grazing on blue grama grass. Ecology, 57, 762–72.Google Scholar
Ellis, J. E., and Swift, D. M. (1988). Stability of African pastoral ecosystems: Alternate paradigms and implications for development. Journal of Range Management, 41, 450–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Feller, C. L. (1997). The concept of humus in the past three centuries. In History of Soil Science, ed. Yaalon, D. H. and Berkowicz, S.. Advances in Geoecology 29. Reiskirchen, Germany: Catena Verlag GMBH, 15–46.Google Scholar
Feller, C., Blanchart, E., and Yaalon, D. H. (2006). Some major scientists (Palissy, Buffon, Thaer, Darwin and Muller) have described profiles in soil and developed soil survey techniques before 1883. In Footprints in the Soil: People and Ideas in Soil History, ed. Warkentin, B. P.. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 85–105.Google Scholar
Feller, C. L., Thuriès, L. J.-M., Manlay, R. J., Robin, P., and Frossard, E. (2003). The principles of rational agriculture by Albrecht Daniel Thaer (1752–1828): An approach to the sustainability of cropping systems at the beginning of the 19th century. Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science, 166, 687–98.Google Scholar
Fitter, A. (2005). Darkness visible: Reflections on underground ecology. Journal of Ecology, http://doi.1111/j.1365–2745.2005.00990.x.Google Scholar
Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO). (1983). World Food Security: A Reappraisal of the Concepts and Approaches. Director General’s Report. Rome: FAO.Google Scholar
Golley, F. B. (1993). History of the Ecosystem Concept in Ecology: More than the Sum of Its Parts. New Haven,CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Greenaway, F. (1996). Science International: A History of the International Council of Scientific Unions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Griggs, D. J., Nilsson, M., Stevance, A., McCollum, M., eds. (2017). A Guide to SDG Interactions: From Science to Implementation. Paris: International Council for Science (ICSU).Google Scholar
Haeckel, E. (1879). Über Entwicklungsgang und Aufgabe der Zoologie. In Gesammelte Populaere Vortraege aus dem Gebiete der Entwicklungslehre. Zweites Heft. Bonn: Verlag Emil Strauss.Google Scholar
Hinckley, E. S., Wieder, W., Fierer, N., and Paul, E. A. (2014). Digging into the soil beneath our feet: Bridging knowledge across scales in the age of global change. EOS, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, 95(11), 95–7.Google Scholar
Holding, A. J., Heal, O. W., MacLean, S. F., and Flanagan, P. W., eds. (1974). Soil Organisms and Decomposition in Tundra. Stockholm: Tundra Biome Steering Committee, 227–47.Google Scholar
Hunt, H. W., Coleman, D. C., Ingham, E. R., et al. (1987). The detrital food web in a short grass prairie. Biology and Fertility of Soils, 3, 57–68.Google Scholar
Hutchinson, G. E. (1957). A Treatise on Limnology. Vol. 1. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Ignaciuk, I., Rice, M., Bogardi, J., et al. (2012). Responding to complex societal challenges: A decade of Earth System Science Partnership (ESSP) interdisciplinary research. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 4, 147–58.Google Scholar
Ingham, R. E., Trofymow, J. A., Ingham, E. R., and Coleman, D. C. (1985). Interactions of bacteria, fungi, and their nematode grazers: Effects on nutrient cycling and plant growth. Ecological Monographs, 55, 119–40.Google Scholar
Innis, G. S., Noy-Meir, I., Godron, M., and Van Dyne, G. M. (1980). Total ecosystem simulation models. In Grasslands, System Analysis and Man, ed. Breymeyer, A. I. and Van Dyne, G. M.. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 759–98.Google Scholar
International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU-ISSC). (2015). Review of the Sustainable Development Goals: The Science Perspective. Paris: International Council for Science (ICSU).Google Scholar
Kim, E.-S., Trisurat, Y., Muraoka, H., et al. (2018). The International Long-Term Ecological Research–East Asia–Pacific Regional Network (ILTER-EAP): History, development, and perspectives. Ecological Research, 33, 19–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kitazawa, Y. (1971). Biological regionality of the soil fauna and its function in forest ecosystem types. In Productivity of Forest Ecosystems, ed. Duvigneaud, P.. Paris: Unesco, 485–98.Google Scholar
Klein, J. T. (2008). Evaluation of interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary research: A literature review. American Journal of Preventative Medicine, 35(28), S116–S123.Google Scholar
Lambin, E. F., and Geist, H. J., eds. (2006). Land-Use and Land-Cover Change. Berlin: Springer Verlag.Google Scholar
Lambin, E. F., Turner, B. L., Geist, H. J., et al. (2001). The causes of land-use and land-cover change: Moving beyond the myths. Global Environmental Change, 11, 261–9.Google Scholar
Lang, D. J., Wiek, A., Bergmann, M., et al. (2012). Transdisciplinary research in sustainability science: Practice, principles, and challenges. Sustainability Science, 7 (Suppl. 1), 25–43, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625–011–0149-x.Google Scholar
Lauenroth, W. K., and Laycock, W.A. (1989). Secondary Succession and the Evaluation of Rangeland Condition. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Lauenroth, W. K., and Preston, E. M., ed. (1984). The Effects of SO2 on a Grassland: A Case Study in the Northern Great Plains of the United States. Ecological Studies, 45. New York: Springer Verlag.Google Scholar
Lawes, J. B., and Gilbert, J. H. (1851). Agricultural chemistry especially in relation to the mineral theory of Baron Liebig. Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of London, 12(1). London: R. Clowes and Sons.Google Scholar
LeRoy, E. (1928). Les origines humaines et l’évolution de l’intelligence, III: La noosphère et l’hominisation. Paris: Boivin.Google Scholar
Lewis, S. L., and Maslin, M. (2015). Defining the Anthropocene. Nature, 519, 171–80.Google Scholar
Lovelock, J. E. (1972). Gaia as seen through the atmosphere. Atmospheric Environment, 6, 579–80.Google Scholar
Lowman, M., D’Avanzo, C., and Brewer, C. (2009). A national ecological network for research and education. Science, 323, 1172–3.Google Scholar
Macfadyen, A. (1963). Animal Ecology: Aims and Methods. London: Pitman.Google Scholar
Margalef, R. (1997). Our Biosphere. Oldendorf, Germany: Ecology Institute.Google Scholar
Marsh, G. P. (1864). Man and Nature, or Physical Geography as Modified by Human Action. Facsimile of first edition, ed. Lowenthal, David. Seattle: University of Washington Press.Google Scholar
McGill, W. B., Hunt, H. W., Woodmansee, R., and Ruess, J. O. (1981). PHOENIX, a model of the dynamics of carbon and nitrogen in grassland soils. In Terrestrial Nitrogen Cycles: Processes, Ecosystem Strategies, and Management Impacts, ed. Clark, F. E. and Rosswall, T.. Ecological Bulletin, 33. Stockholm: Swedish Natural Science Research Council, 40–115.Google Scholar
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA). (2005). Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Synthesis. Washington, DC: Island Press.Google Scholar
Miller, R. W., and Gardiner, D. T. (1998). Soils in Our Environment. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.Google Scholar
Mirkin, B. M. (1987). Paradigm change and vegetation classification in Soviet phytocoenology. Vegetatio, 68, 131–8.Google Scholar
Misra, R., and Gopal, B., eds. (1968). Proceedings of the Symposium on Recent Advances in Tropical Ecology, Part II. Varanasi, India: International Society for Tropical Ecology.Google Scholar
Mitchell, R., Mayer, R. A., and Downhower, J. (1976). Evaluation of 3 Biome Programs. Science, 192, 859–65.Google Scholar
Möbius, K. (1877). Die Auster und die Austernwirtschaft. Berlin: Verlag von Wiegandt, Hemple & Parey. (English translation: The Oyster and Oyster Farming.) U.S. Commission Fish and Fisheries Report, 1880, 683–751.Google Scholar
Mooney, H. A., Duraiappah, A., and Larigauderie, A. (2013). Towards future Earth: Evolution or revolution? Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS), 110, 3665–72.Google Scholar
Moore, J. C., and de Ruiter, P. C. (2012). Energy Food Webs: An Analysis of Real and Model Ecosystems. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Müller, P. E. (1884). Studier over Skovjord, som Bidrag til Skovdyrkningens Teori: Om Muld og Mor i Egeskove og paa Heder. Tidskrift for Skovbrug, 7, 1.Google Scholar
Nadkarni, N., Schaefer, D., Matelson, T. J., and Solano, R. (2002). Comparison of arboreal and terrestrial soil characteristics in a lower montane forest, Monteverde, Costa Rica. Pedobiologia, 46, 24–33.Google Scholar
National Academy of Sciences (NAS). (1974). U.S. Participation in the International Biological Program. Report No. 6. Washington, DC: NAS.Google Scholar
Numata, M., ed. (1975). Ecological Studies in Japanese Grasslands, with Special Reference to the IBP Area. Tokyo: University Tokyo Press.Google Scholar
Odum, E. P., and Odum, H. T. (1953). Fundamentals of Ecology. Philadelphia: Saunders.Google Scholar
Pace, M. L, and Groffman, P. A., eds. (1998). Successes, Limitations and Frontiers in Ecosystem Science. New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Parkinson, D., and Paul, E. A. (1982). Microbial biomass. In Methods of Soil Analysis, Part 2 – Chemical and Microbiological Properties, 2nd edn., ed. Page, A. L., Miller, R. H., and Keeney, D. R.. Agronomy Monograph 9. Madison, WI: American Society of Agronomy, 821–30.Google Scholar
Parton, W. J., Hartman, M., Ojima, D., and Schimel, S. (1998). DAYCENT and its land surface sub model: Description and testing. Global and Planetary Change, 19, 32–48.Google Scholar
Parton, W. J., Schimel, D. S., Cole, C. V., and Ojima, D. S. (1987). Analysis of factors controlling soil organic matter levels in Great Plains grasslands. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 51, 1173–9.Google Scholar
Paul, E. A. (1978). Contribution of nitrogen fixation to ecosystem functioning and nitrogen fluxes on a global basis. In Environmental Role of Nitrogen-Fixing Blue-Green Algae and Asymbiotic Bacteria, ed. Granhall, V.. Ecological Bulletin, 26. Stockholm: Swedish Natural Science Research Council, 282–93.Google Scholar
Paul, E. A. (2015). Soil Microbiology, Ecology and Biochemistry, 4th edn. San Diego, CA: Elsevier, Academic Press.Google Scholar
Paul, E. A., and Clark, F. E. (1989). Soil Microbiology and Biochemistry. San Diego, CA: Elsevier, Academic Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paul, E. A., Follett, R. F., Leavitt, W., et al. (1997). Radiocarbon dating for determination of soil organic matter pool sizes and fluxes. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 61, 1058–67.Google Scholar
Paul, E. A., and van Veen, J. A. (1978). The use of tracers to determine the dynamic nature of organic matter. Proceedings of the 11th International Congress of Soil Science, Edmonton, Canada, June, 1978. Vol. 3, 61–102.Google Scholar
Persson, T., ed. (1980). Structure and Function of Northern Coniferous Forests: An Ecosystem Study. Ecological Bulletins, 32. Stockholm: Swedish Natural Science Research Council.Google Scholar
Petersen, H., and Luxton, M. (1982). A comparative analysis of soil fauna populations and their role in decomposition processes. Oikos, 39, 287–388.Google Scholar
Petrusewicz, K., ed. (1967). Secondary Productivity of Terrestrial Ecosystems (Principles and Methods). Warsaw and Krakow: Panstwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, Polish Academy of Sciences.Google Scholar
Petrusewicz, K., and Macfadyen, A. (1970). Productivity of Terrestrial Animals: Principles and Methods, IBP Handbook No. 13, ed. Davis, F. A.. Oxford and Edinburgh: Blackwell Scientific Publications.Google Scholar
Phillipson, J., ed. (1970). Methods of Study in Soil Ecology: Proceedings of the Symposium Organized by Unesco and the International Biological Programme (Paris, France, November, 1967). Paris: Unesco.Google Scholar
Reavy, B., Swanson, M. M., and Taliansky, M. (2014). Viruses in soil. In Interactions in Soil Promoting Plant Growth, ed. Dighton, J. and Krumins, J.. New York: Springer Science and Business, 163–80.Google Scholar
Richerson, R. B., Boyd, R., and Bettinger, R. L. (2001). Was agriculture impossible during the Pleistocene but mandatory during the Holocene? A climate change hypothesis. American Antiquity, 66, 387–411.Google Scholar
Rockström, J. (2016). Future Earth. Science, 351, 319.Google Scholar
Rockström, J., Steffen, W., Noone, K., et al. (2009). A safe operating space for humanity. Nature, 461, 472–5.Google Scholar
Rodin, L. E., and Bazilevich, N. (1967). Production and Mineral Cycling in Terrestrial Vegetation. English edn. (Transl. Scripta Technica Ltd., ed. Fogg, G. E.) London: Oliver & Boyd.Google Scholar
Rychnovska, M. (1979). Ecosystem synthesis of meadow energy flow. In Grassland Ecosystems of the World, ed. Coupland, R. T.. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 165–79.Google Scholar
Sage, R. F. (1995). Was low atmospheric CO2 during the Pleistocene a limiting factor for the origin of agriculture? Global Change Biology, 1, 93–106.Google Scholar
Shields, J. A., Paul, E. A., Lowe, W. E., and Parkinson, D. (1973). Turnover of microbial tissue in soil under field conditions. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 5, 753–64.Google Scholar
Singh, J. S. (1968). Net aboveground community productivity in the grasslands at Varanasi. In Proceedings of Symposium on Recent Advances in Tropical Ecology, ed. Misra, R.. Varanasi, India: International Society for Tropical Ecology, 631–54.Google Scholar
Singh, J. S., and Coleman, D. C. (1974). Distribution of photo-assimilated carbon-14 in the root system of a shortgrass prairie. Journal of Ecology, 62, 389–95.Google Scholar
Sonesson, M., ed. (1980). Ecology of a Subarctic Mire. Ecological Bulletin, 30. Stockholm: Swedish Natural Science Research Council.Google Scholar
Steffen, W., Richardson, K., Rockström, J., et al. (2015). Planetary boundaries: Guiding human development on a changing planet. Science, http://doi:10.1126/science.1259855.Google Scholar
Steffen, W., Sanderson, R. A., Tyson, P. D., et al., ed. (2004). Global Change and the Earth System. Heidelberg: Springer Verlag.Google Scholar
Tansley, A. (1935). The use and abuse of vegetational concepts and terms. Ecology, 16, 284–307.Google Scholar
Thomas, W. L. Jr., ed. (1956). Man’s Role in Changing the Face of the Earth. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Triska, F. J., Sedell, J. R., and Gregory, S. V. (1982). Coniferous forest streams. In Analysis of Coniferous Forest Ecosystems in the Western United States, ed. Edmonds, R. L.. Stroudsburg, PA: Hutchinson Ross, 292–332.Google Scholar
Turner, B. L. II, Clark, W. C., Kates, R. W., et al., ed. (1990). The Earth as Transformed by Human Action: Global and Regional Changes in the Biosphere over the Past 300 Years. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Ülehlova, B. (1979). Microorganisms in meadows. In Grassland Ecosystems of the World, ed. Coupland, R. T.. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Vanderbilt, K., and Gaiser, E. (2017). The International Long Term Ecological Research Network: A platform for collaboration. Ecosphere, 8(2), e01697.Google Scholar
Van Dyne, G. M., ed. (1969). The Ecosystem Concept in Natural Resource Management. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Vernadsky, V. I. (1944). Problems of biogeochemistry, II: The fundamental matter–energy difference between the living and the inert bodies of the biosphere. Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, 35, 483–512.Google Scholar
Vernadsky, V. I. (1986). The Biosphere. New York: Copernicus, Springer-Verlag. Originally published 1926 in Russian.Google Scholar
Von Humboldt, A. (1845–52). Cosmos: A Sketch of the Physical Description of the Universe, trans. Sabine, Elizabeth J. L.. Vols. 1–3. London: Longman, Brown, Green and Longmans, and John Murray.Google Scholar
Waksman, S. A. (1932). Principles of Soil Microbiology. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins.Google Scholar
Wall, D. H., ed. (2004). Sustaining Diversity and Ecosystem Services in Soils and Sediments. Washington, DC: Island Press.Google Scholar
Wall, D. H., ed. (2012). Soil Ecology and Ecosystem Services. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Wallace, J. B. (1988). Aquatic invertebrate research. In Forest Hydrology and Ecology at Coweeta, ed. Swank, W. T. and Crossley, D. A. Jr. Ecological Studies, 66. New York: Springer, 257–68.Google Scholar
Warembourg, F. R., and Paul, E. A. (1977). Seasonal transfers of assimilated 14C in grassland: Plant production and turnover, soil and plant respiration. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 9, 295–301.Google Scholar
Warembourg, F. R., Paul, E. A., Randell, R. L., and More, R. B. (1979). Model of assimilated carbon distribution in grassland. Oecologia Plantarum, 14, 1–12.Google Scholar
Warington, R. (1883). Changes Which Nitrogenous Matter Undergo within the Soil. London: Harrington and Sons.Google Scholar
Warkentin, B. P., ed. (2006). Footprints in the Soil. Amsterdam: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Weathers, K. C., Groffman, P. M., and Van Dolah, E., et al. (2016). Frontiers in ecosystem ecology from a community perspective: The future is boundless and bright. Ecosystems, 19, 753–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weaver, J. E. (1968). Prairie Plants and Their Environment: A Fifty-Year Study in the Midwest. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.Google Scholar
Webb, D. P. (1977). Regulation of deciduous forest litter decomposition by soil arthropod feces. In The Role of Arthropods in Forest Ecosystems, ed. Mattson, W. J.. New York: Springer, 57–69.Google Scholar
Webster, J. R., Golladay, S. W., Benfield, E. F., et al. (1992). Catchment disturbance and stream response: An overview of stream research at Coweeta Hydrologic Laboratory. In River Conservation and Management, eds. Boon, P., Petts, G., and Calow, P. L.. Chichester: Wiley, 232–53.Google Scholar
Weintraub, M. N., and Schimel, J. (2003). Interactions between carbon and nitrogen mineralization and soil organic matter chemistry in Arctic tundra soils. Ecosystems, 6, 120–43.Google Scholar
Whitford, W. G. (2000). Keystone arthropods as webmasters in desert ecosystems. In Invertebrates as Webmasters in Ecosystems, ed. Coleman, D. C. and Hendrix, P. F.. Wallingford: CAB International, 25–41.Google Scholar
Whittaker, J. B. (1974). Interactions between fauna and microflora at tundra sites. In Soil Organisms and Decomposition in Tundra, ed. Holding, A. J.. Stockholm: Tundra Biome Steering Committee, 183–96.Google Scholar
Wilde, S. A. (1946). Forest Soils and Forest Growth. Waltham, MA: Chronica Botanica.Google Scholar
Woese, C. R., and Wheelis, M. L. (1990). Towards a natural system of organisms: Proposal for the domains Archaea, Bacteria, and Eucarya. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 87, 4576–9.Google Scholar
Woodmansee, R. G. (1978). Additions and losses of nitrogen in grassland ecosystems. BioScience, 28, 448–53.Google Scholar
Worthington, E. B., ed. (1975). The Evolution of IBP. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Wulf, A. (2015). The Invention of Nature: Alexander von Humboldt’s New World. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.Google Scholar
Zlotin, R. I., and Khodashova, K. (1980). The Role of Animals in Biological Cycling of Forest-Steppe Ecosystems. Stroudsburg, PA: Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×