Index
accuracy vs. directional goals, and adjustment to misinformation correction,
accurate information vs. misinformation, spread and impact, 22
ACLU (American Civil Liberties Union), 225
ad exchanges, 125
administrative data, user data as, 319
advertising. see also political advertising
CDA 230 liability immunity issue, , 270
as motivation to use misinformation, 18
online platform advantage in, 144
advisory opinions, FEC, 117
affective polarization,
Africa, misinformation effects, 26
African Americans, effects of online discrimination, 68
agenda-setting power of misinformation,
aggregate-level political polarization from social media, 46
Aiello, Luca Maria, 38
algorithmic bias, social media platforms’ priorities and, 21
algorithmic systems. see also ranking algorithms
content takedown and,
for corrections to misinformation,
curation of feed content and liability platforms, 265
lack of transparency, 293,
Allport, Gordon Willard, 44
alt-right communities, code-word stand-ins for racial slurs, 57
Alvarez-Benjumea, Amalia, 75
American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), 225
The American Voter (Campbell), 13
analytical thinking, in responses to misinformation and its correction, 182
Ananny, Mike, , 305
Andrews, C., 21
Angwin, Julia, 238
anti-refugee hate crimes, 70
antitrust law, as media regulation tool, ,
Application Programming Interfaces (APIs), defined, 316
asymmetric polarization,
attention cascades, misinformation effects in Brazil, 26
audit reports, disclosure by platforms during content takedown,
authoritarian regimes, social media influence campaigns in, 25
automated hate speech detection, , 72
automated serendipity,
automatic vs. deliberative belief echoes, 175
backfire effects, 187, see also worldview backfire effects
banning of hate speech producers, 73
from correction of misinformation, 45
defined, 163
familiarity effect,
from psychological reactance, 183
from transparency attempts, 302
backlash against worldview backfire effects,
Badaan, Vivianne, 74
bag-of-communities technique, hate speech detection, 60
bag-of-words method, hate speech detection, 59
Bakshy, Eytan, 43
Balkin, Jack, 323
Ballard, Andrew O.,
Barlow, John Perry, 200
Barnes v. Yahoo!, 260
Barnidge, Matthew, 40
Batzel v. Smith, 260
BCRA (Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act) of 2002,
belief echoes, 175
Bello-Pardo, Emily, 45
Benkler, Y., 17
Berinsky, A. J., 179
Berry, Jeffrey M., 37
Bessi, Alessandro, 99
Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA) of 2002,
blockchain-based registry, 292
Blunt, Christopher,
BMJV (Ministry of Justice and Consumer Protection), 205
boomerang effects, from correction of misinformation, 45
bot detection systems, 97
bots. see also political bots, social bots
defined,
in counter-speech against hate speech, 74
influence potential, 89
limiting prevalence of, 278
types of,
Bowling Alone (Putnam), 36
Boxell, Levi, 44
Boyd, R. L., 15
Bramble, Nicholas,
Brazil, misinformation dissemination in, 26
“breaking news” sites, 21
broadcast media, regulation of,
Broockman, D. E., 24
Brundidge, Jennifer, 39
Brynjolfsson, Erik, 36
campaign committees, 112
campaign contact and advertising, lack of impact from, 24
Campbell, A., 13
Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy (Schumpeter), 140
censorship
automatic hate speech detection errors, 72
combating bots and, 94
as risk of content moderation, 73
as social control over hate speech, 75
vs. indirect support for preferred media content, 203
Chadwick, A., 98
challenge avoidance vs. reinforcement seeking,
Chan, Jason, 70
Chandrasekharan, Eshwar, 72
Cheung, C. S. C., 166
Christchurch terrorist incident, 231
Citron, Danielle Keats, 278
Civettini, A. J. W., 172
Clapper, James R. Jr., 89
Clinton, Hillary, 17
Cloudflare, 231
Code of Practice on Disinformation, European Commission, 300
cognitive bias, diffusion of misinformation and, 21
Collier, J., 25
Communications Decency Act (CDA) of 1996
costs and benefits of modifying,
court-driven regulation using,
disinformation challenge sources,
failure of “wisdom of the crowds” concept,
history of,
introduction,
legislative actions beyond amendation of,
modification or removal of to address political disinformation,
practical modifications,
regulatory role of,
“communications placed for a fee on another person’s Web site,” 119
communities of like-minded individuals, 34,
Community Standards, Facebook’s, , 304
community-driven filtration of disinformation, 274
competition, increasing internet platform, 215
complex realism, in media impact on democracy, 157
Computational Propaganda (Woolley and Howard), 90
The Computerization Society (Nora and Minc), 207
conflict detection, in processing corrections to misinformation, 177
connective use of bots, for democratic good or control, 96
Consent of the Networked (McKinnon), 238
conservatism, predictors of, 180
consumer welfare standard, leaving the price model of, 216
consumption of misinformation,
contact hypothesis, 44
content and advertisements, transparency of,
content moderation
calls for legal mandates, 220
Facebook’s opaqueness about, 294
hate speech reduction, 58,
intermediary liability laws,
regulation of internet platforms and,
content takedown
consequences of,
empirical research questions,
internet platform practices,
legally mandated vs. voluntary,
sources of information,
US court support for platforms’ right, 225
voluntary transparency during,
content-based factors, as moderators of misinformation receptivity,
contextual factors, as moderators of misinformation receptivity,
Cook, Timothy, 142
Coppock, Alexander, 172
Copyright Directive, EU, 224
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) movement, 291
corporate social responsibility, and transparency,
correction of misinformation. see also backfire effects
consequences of,
content-based factors in receptivity to,
contextual factors in receptivity to, 183
disadvantage of arguments in favor of original, 170
environmental factors in receptivity to,
exposure to fact checking, 186
moderators of influence of,
personal and psychological factors in receptivity to,
review of literature,
Costello, Matthew, 64
counter-attitudinal messages, acceptance of, , 172
counter-notices to content takedown, 227
counter-speech approach to reducing hate speech,
Counter-Terrorist Information Referral Unit (CTIRU), UK, 235
Crawford, Kate, , 305
creative destruction
impact on democracy, 140,
individual-level changes in news engagement,
internet platforms’ role in, , ,
CSA (Higher Audiovisual Council), 205
CSR (Corporate Social Responsibility) movement, 291
CTIRU (Counter-Terrorist Information Referral Unit), UK, 235
culture of connectivity, 147
cyberbalkanization, 49
cynicism and apathy, misinformation’s effects on, 25
Dara, Rishabh, 239
data portability, 216
data stewards, internet platforms as, 323
data tax on internet platforms, 323
“Declaration of the Independence of Cyberspace” (Barlow), 200
defamation tort as basis for platform liability, 275
deliberative vs. automatic belief echoes, 175
democracy. see also transparency, platform society
ambiguous nature of disinformation impact,
bots for the good of,
creative destruction’s impact on, 140,
definitional issues,
disinformation targeting in democracies, 25
institutional shifts in, 156
losses from news media changes,
media regulation vs. free speech rights in,
Democratic Corporatist model, political system and media, 202
“democratic creative destruction,” ,
Diakopoulos, N.,
dictionary-based methods, hate speech detection, 59
difference-in-differences strategy, belief analysis for new rumors, 24
digital advertising, decline of traditional news institutions and, 144, see also political advertising
digital trace data, 8
direct vs. distributed discovery of news,
directional vs. accuracy goals, and adjustment to misinformation correction,
directionally motivated reasoning, , 171
disclaimers on advertisements,
disinformation. see also propaganda
ambiguity of impact on democracy,
challenge of measuring societal impact, 271
community-driven filtration of, 274
computational propaganda, 90
defined, 11
global reach of, 25
intentionality in, 168
judicial action to combat, ,
legislative interventions to combat, 270,
misinformation vs., 166
in online news participation, 155
production of,
Section 230, Communications Decency Act (CDA 230),
as unfair competition in marketplace of ideas,
Disinformation Code of Practice, EU, 225
dispute flags for contested stories, 266
dissemination and spread of misinformation,
distributed vs. direct discovery of news,
diverse deliberation, importance of, 44
diverse groups, problem-solving abilities, 37
Doe v. Backpage, 264
Doe v. MySpace, 260
dual-process theory, continued influence effect,
echo chambers, 241
avoidance of opinion challenges as path to, 38
conservatives’ vulnerability to, 180
diffusion patterns of information and, 22
political polarization and,
social bias in diffusion of misinformation and, 21
social media’s fostering of, 34,
eCommerce Directive, EU, 224
EDRi (European Digital Rights), 225
Elkin-Koren, Niva, 239
Ellinas, Antonis, 206
email lists, buying or selling, 114
Emmerson, K. M., 172
enclave deliberation, 37
Enforcement Report, Facebook Community Standards,
engagement metrics, mismatch with traffic statistics and consumption data, 26
Engstrom, Evan, 239
environmental factors, as moderators of misinformation receptivity,
EU elections of May 2019, internet platform content takedown reporting, 234
Europe
free speech rights vs. media regulation in, 199
misinformation consumption patterns, 20
misinformation impact in, 25
selective exposure to news, 151
European Digital Rights (EDRi), 225
express advocacy, 115
Facebook
algorithmic bias vs. individual choice, 43
challenges of making competitive, 216
changes in compensation options, 126
Community Standards, , 304
content takedown processes, 231
cross-cutting friendships and viewpoint diversity, 40
culture of openness, 294
data access challenges, , ,
education of users on information skepicism, 185
FEC rules for ads,
individual-level fake-news sharing behavior, 21
lack of ranking algorithm effect on ideological balance of news consumption, 35
leaked information during content takedowns, 236
negotiation of ad policies, 124
opaqueness to outside world, 294
Oversight Body proposal for content policy, 304
polarization effect of deactivation of account, 45
privacy audits of, 299
reduction in misinformation sharing, 23
resistance to third-party investigations,
rules on content to remove hate speech, 71
social bias in diffusion of information, 21
social bots and fake accounts, 91
targeted advertising information,
worldwide application of GDPR by, 317
fact checks, exposure to, 186
Fair Housing Council of San Fernando Valley v. Roommates.com, 263
Fairness Doctrine, FCC, , 215
fake news. see also misinformation
age factor in being more willing to share, 21
consumption research on exposure to, 18
defined, 11
density of ecosystem, 17
format criterion for misinformation, 167
political bias in 2016 presidential election, 17
profit motive for producers of, 14
proliferation of, 163
Republicans vs. Democrats in reading and sharing, 180
as synonym for misinformation, 253
familiarity backfire effects, correction of misinformation,
FCC (Federal Communications Commission),
Feamster, Nick, 239
Federal Communications Commission (FCC),
Federal Election Campaign Act (FECA), 277
Federal Election Commission (FEC), 112
advertising regulation,
digital political ad spending information,
Federal Trade Commission (FTC), 299
filter bubbles, , 152
The Filter Bubble (Pariser),
financial incentives for disinformation,
First Amendment
challenge of combating disinformation in environment of, 276
challenging CDA 230 and, 268
private vs. public speech and, 209
Flaxman, Seth, 39
Flynn, D. J., 164
Flyverbom, Mikkel, 294
focus criterion for misinformation, 167
FOI or FOIA (Freedom of Information Access), 289
foreign interests, investing in elections, 115
format crierion for misinformation, 167
for-profit entities, news media as,
4chans /pol/ board, 64
Fowler, Erika Franklin, 134
Franz, Michael M., 134
Freedom of Information Access (FOI or FOIA), 289
Frenemies: How Social Media Polarizes America (Settle),
FTC (Federal Trade Commission), 299
FTC v. Accusearch, 263
funding of social media research,
Fung, Archon,
Gab, 64
Gayo-Avello, D., 95
Gillespie, Tarleton, 238
Gladwell, Malcolm, 41
Glaser, J., 180
global considerations
censorship danger of content moderation, 73
hate speech detection in languages other than English, 61
hate speech legal definitions, 58
political bot usage,
political polarization, 49
scope of misinformation and,
social media as transnational communication mechanism, 99
Global Network Initiative (GNI), , , 299
global South, misinformation effects in,
Goel, Sharad, 39
Google
advertising data access challenge, , 302
content takedown processes, , 231
content takedown resources, 233
culture of openness, 294
lack of ranking algorithm effect on ideological balance of news consumption, 35
negotiation of ad policies, 124
search engine contribution to filter bubble, 42
targeted advertising information, 127
YouTube bans by, 209
Gorwa, R., 94
group-level considerations, hate speech effects,
Guilbeault, D., 94
Gulati, J. “Jeff,”
Hallin, Daniel C., , 206
hate crimes, online hate speech and,
hate groups, use of online hate speech,
hate speech. see also Network Enforcement Law (NetzDG)
combating, , 77
defining, , 75
detecting, , 76
introduction, 56
offline consequences of, , 77
prevalence of,
producers of, , 76
targets of, , , 76
Hawdon, James, 64
Higher Audiovisual Council (CSA), 205
Hillygus, D. Sunshine,
Holz, T., 94
homogeneous discussion groups, polarization in, 37
homophily, , 41
Honest Ads Act, 122
honey-pot bots, 95
Howard, Philip N., 90
A Human Rights Audit of the Internet Watch Foundation (“IWF Audit”), 236
Hwang, Tim, 96
hyperpartisan publishers, 17
ideological polarization, , 48
illegal content, variations in knowledge definition and platform liability, 224
inadvertency thesis, 39
incidental exposure to news, 152
independent research, on platforms’ takedown practices, 237,
in-depth public statements, disclosure by platforms during content takedown,
India, misinformation effects in, 26
individual-level exposure to social media, lack of echo chamber effect, 44
individual-level factors
cross-cutting discussions and polarization effects, 45
diversity of opinion in news exposure,
hate speech impacts,
as moderators of misinformation receptivity,
news media changes,
influence, online
authoritarian regimes’ influence campaigns, 25
distortion of democratic processes by, 240
of political bots, 96
information falsehood and quality, challenge of regulating,
information fiduciaries, internet platforms as, 323
information monopolies, dangers of,
ingroup superiority, identifying hate speech, 60
intentionality criterion for misinformation,
Intermediary Liability laws, 220,
Internet
early utopianism, 1
facilitation of like-minded group communication,
hate groups’ use of,
impracticalities of regulating content on, 200
internet platforms. see also transparency, platform society, social media platforms
content moderation by, ,
distributed discovery of news,
hate speech definitions, 58
impact on democracy, 157,
institutionalization of,
lack of regulation and restriction in United States,
regulatory issues for,
size factor in content takedown practices, 226
speech rule enforcement problems, 221
transparency issue for, ,
Internet Referral Unit (IRU), Europol,
Internet Watch Foundation (IWF), UK, 236
IRU (Internet Referral Unit), Europol,
journalism bots, contribution to democratic discourse,
journalistic professionalism, 201
judicial action
to address internet platform content liability,
to combat disinformation campaigns,
Kaakinen, Markus, 67
Kahan, D. M., 181
Kalla, J. L., 24
Karpf, D., 98
Kim, E., 24
Kim, J. W., 24
Kim, Young Mie, 127
Kollanyi, Bence, 99
Kolo, Castulus, 204
Konitzer, Tobias,
Kosack, Stephen, 290
Kruglanski, A. W., 180
Kuhn, Raymond, 203
Kuklinski, J. H., 12
Le Floch, Patrick, 204
leaked information, disclosure by platforms during content takedown, 236
legacy broadcast media, regulation of,
legal definitions of hate speech, ambiguities in, 58
legislative interventions to combat disinformation online, 270,
legitimate news providers, vulnerability to agenda setting by misinformation sources, 23
Leonard, A., 91
Lewandowsky, S., 164
liability of internet platforms. see Communications Decency Act (CDA) of 1996, Intermediary Liability laws
liberal bias accusations against California-based internet platforms,
Liberal model, political system and media, 202
liberals vs. conservatives
asymmetry in ideological valence, 17
biased information processing, 48
misinformation consumption levels, 19
misinformation from, 180
responses to misinformation correction,
“liberation technology,” 1
like-minded individuals, polarizing views through communities of, 36
Lipset, Seymour Martin, 208
listener bots, 95
Lodge, Milton, 47
Lokot, T.,
Luceri, L., 90
MacGregor, Sharon, 238
machine learning, 92
Magdy, Walid, 64
Magrini, 206
Mancini, Paolo,
mandated transparency regimes,
manufacturing consensus, computational propaganda for, 100
Marchal, N., 20
Maréchal, N., 94
marketplace of ideas, disinformation as unfair competition in,
Martin, Gregory J., 134
Mathew, Binny, 75
Maurer, Brianna, 45
McGregor, Shannon C., 124
McKinnon, Rebecca,
media ecology, studying the media as ecosystem,
media pluralism,
media regulation, , see also Communications Decency Act (CDA) of 1996
Europe,
free speech rights vs.,
legacy broadcast media,
United States,
media tracking firms, as source for digital ad spending data,
mental model theory, and continued influence effect, 174
Merkel, Angela, 89
message presentation, and backfire effects from misinformation correction, 170
microtargeting, establishing limitations on,
Minc, Alain, 207
Ministry of Justice and Consumer Protection (BMJV), 205
Minitel,
minority groups, online speech as marginalizer of, 241
misinformation. see also disinformation, fake news
ambiguity of impact on democracy,
consumption of,
defining, ,
disinformation vs., 166
effects on democratic process,
effects on political activity, 27
European media regulation response to, 205
global scope of,
lack of research on effects of political,
misperceptions and, , 166
moderators of influence of,
from online news participation,
proliferation of,
research progress on social media,
Section 230, Communications Decency Act (CDA 230),
spread and dissemination of,
misperceptions and misinformation, , 166
Monaco, Nicholas, 100
Muller, Karsten, 70
Munger, Kevin, 74
Murphy, S. T., 184
Muslims, fears generated by hate speech, 68
Mutz, Diana C., 50
Nagler, Jonathan, 21
Narayanan, V., 26
National Security Agency (NSA), US, 296
need for closure, in responses to misinformation and its correction,
negativity of digital advertising, collecting data on, 133
Nelson, J. L., 19
neutrality of internet platforms in relationship to users’ speech,
The New Governors (Klonick), 238
New York Times Co. v. Sullivan, 262
Newell, Edward, 72
news bots,
news media
attention shift away from news, 144
consequences of changes in, 157
expansion of news sources to individuals and organizations,
impact on democracy,
individual-level changes in,
institutional changes in,
loss of trust in, 153
online harassment, 154
operational changes, 146
structural changes and impact on democracy,
n-grams method, hate speech detection, 59
Nielsen, Rasmus Kleis, 40
Nimmo, B., 99
Nora, Simon, 207
novelty, as main driver of misinformation, 22
NSA (National Security Agency), US, 296
Nyss, C., 100
Obama, Barack, 35
offline and online social ties, 39
offline consequences of online speech, , 241
offline vs. online information exposure, 40
Olteanu, Alexandra, 67
online panels of individuals, advertising data from,
Onlinecensorship.org, 238
opinion challenges, avoiding, or not,
The Outrage Industry (Berry and Sobieraj), 37
overcorrection of misinformation, and psychological reactance, 183
oversight issue, democratic transparency,
paid vs. unpaid communications to voters, content of, 133
Panagopoulos, C., 180
Pariser, Eli,
participatory media, manipulation of mainstream media by, 16
partisan identification
as moderator of misinformation receptivity,
responses to misinformation and its correction,
partisan motivated reasoning, 46
Perel, Mayaan, 239
personal and psychological factors, as moderators of misinformation receptivity,
personalization, news, 153
platformed sociality, 147
platform-independent data from media tracking firms, as source for digital ad spending data,
Polarized Pluralist model, political system and media, 202
policies
anti-political bot, 94
social media platforms’ self-generated ad, 124
social media research impact on, 9
political advertising
campaign contact and impact from, 24
campaign finance rules,
classification of ads,
congressional proposals,
content of, , 209
decentralized purchasing structure,
disclaimer requirements,
effectiveness question for,
introduction,
negotiation of ad policies by platforms, 124
reporting requirements,
social media platforms as media consultants, 126
spending on,
state laws,
targeting of,
transparency practices of internet platforms,
political bots
as computational propaganda tools,
defeating, 99
for democratic good,
fears around, 89
influence debate, 96
role of,
separation from traditional propaganda, 99
political campaigns, as new media, 147
political factors in moderators of misinformation receptivity,
political ideology, as moderator of misinformation receptivity,
political interest factor in asymmetric polarization,
political parallelism, 201
political polarization
asymmetric,
avoiding opinion challenges,
communities of like-minded individuals,
echo chamber effects, 34, ,
filter bubble,
ideological,
interventions to reduce, 50
political rumors, defined, 166
political sophistication, as moderator of misinformation and its correction,
Porter, E., 172
power-law pattern, fake news sharing on Twitter, 22
Preuss, Mike, 74
“prevent harm” goal of Intermediary Liability laws, 223
privacy issue
Europe vs. United States, 208
FTC regulation of internet platforms’ practices, 299
future prospects for balance with research access,
impact on research access to data,
user vs. owner approach to data rights, 323
private broadcasting, development of,
programmatic purchasing of advertising, 125
“promote innovation” goal of Intermediary Liability laws, 223
propaganda. see also political bots
creation of misperceptions through, 13
defined, 11
social bots and,
ProPublica,
“protect lawful online speech and information” goal of Intermediary Liability laws, 223
psychological reactance, in responses to misinformation and its correction, 183
public broadcasting, , 211
public communication, defined, 114
public filings, disclosure by platforms during content takedown,
public interest standard, US broadcasting,
public’s right to data, rethinking,
Putnam, Robert, 36
radicalization and recruitment to terrorist groups, 241
raiding, in online hate speech, 66
ranking algorithms
cross-cutting content reduction by, 43
ideological impact of, 35
ideological segregation and, 43
political polarization role of,
as shapers of discourse,
Rao, Justin M., 39
Ratkiewicz, J., 98
Red Lion Broadcasting v. FCC, 212
refugees, hate speech and hate crimes against, 70
regulatory oversight, as necessary backing for transparency, 291
reinforcement seeking vs. challenge avoidance,
repeating misinformation, strengthening in memory, 176
retweet networks, prevalence among hate speech users, 63
Ribeiro, Manoel Horta, 63
Rivero, Gonzalo, 38
Roberts, Chris, 133
robonotices, 226
robot journalists, limitations of, 97
Roche, C., 170
Russian model for propaganda, wearing down of political participation interest from, 25
Ruths, Derek, 72
Saleem, Haji Mohammad, 72
Scandinavian government transparency initiatives, 289
Schaffner, B. F., 170
Schieb, Carla, 74
Schwarz, N., 70
Seaborn, Brent,
search engines, ranking algorithms and the filter bubble, 42,
Seifert, C. M., 164
self-reported survey measures, unreliability of, 18
self-selection of individuals in social media networks,
Settle, Jaime E., 46
Shao, C., 20
Shaw, Daron R.,
Shin, J., 23
Silva, Leandro, 64
sleeper bots, 95
Snowden, Edward, 296
Sobieraj, Sarah, 37
social bias, diffusion of misinformation and, 21
social bots, 20,
social correction by users on social media, 185
social media platforms. see also internet platforms, content moderation, media regulation
algorithmic bias and, 42
hate speech forms and patterns on,
inadvertency thesis and exposure to diverse views,
long-term changes in interaction on, 49
as major resources for media consumption, 20
as media consultants, 126
negotiation of ad policies, 124
political polarization effect from using,
response to proposed new advertising rules, 123
risks of influence over research,
role in misinformation correction,
as transnational communication mechanisms, 99
as US based and inflexible in other countries, 156
social media research
challenges and opportunities, 237,
data sharing paradigm,
difficulty of studying persuasive effects of misinformation, 24
funding of,
future prospects,
general challenges of, 11
hate speech detection limitations, 61
importance of, ,
misinformation analysis challenge, 27
need for multiple-platform study, 23
overview,
privacy practices vs. data access, ,
social unacceptability, as deterrent to hate speech, 75
source credibility, 171
source cues, backfire effects of misinformation correction, 170
spambots, 95
spending on digital political advertising, , 134
state actors, disinformation from,
steganography as hate speech symbol, 65
Stephens-Davidowitz, Seth, 70
stereotype subtyping theory, 172
Stratton Oakmont v. Prodigy Service,
structuration, 139
Suhay, Elizabeth, 45
supervised text classification tasks, hate speech detection,
Taber, C. S., 47
takedown requests, disclosure by platforms during content takedown, 230
Taneja, H., 19
technology
media regulation and telecommunications development, ,
role in political communication, , 36
temporal distance issue for corrected misinformation, 175,
terrorism, radicalization, and recruitment by online influencers, 241
text message ads, FEC disclaimer requirements,
third-party investigations to ensure transparency,
Thorson, E., 175
Three Years of the Right to Be Forgotten (Google), 231
topic modeling approach, hate speech detection, 60
transnational communication mechanism, social media as, 99
transparency reports, disclosure by platforms during content takedown,
transparency, platform society
as academic study topic, 287
as accountability mechanism,
content and advertisements,
corporate social responsibility,
future of, 273,
historical evolution of,
mandated transparency regimes, ,
mixed results of,
oversight issue,
purpose of, 305
social media platforms’ policies to increase ad, 123
theory and reality of, 292,
third-party investigation to ensure,
transparency in practice,
user disclosure requirements by platforms, 267
voluntary internet platform, 222,
troll bots, 95
Trump, Donald, 17
Twitter
advertising research challenge, 126
asymmetric polarization on, 48
“breaking news” sites, 21
cross-cutting friendships and viewpoint diversity, 40
effects of banning extremist social networks, 72
partisan sharing of ideological views, 38
political advertising, 123,
political moderation impact of cross-cutting content exposure, 45
power-law pattern in fake news sharing, 22
retweet analysis for spread data, 20
Russian IRA operations,
small numbers of activists as responsible for majority of partisan content, 38
social bots on, 91
spread and dissemination of misinformation, 22
Ukraine, disinformation campaigns in, 25
United Kingdom, media regulation in, 211
United States
media regulation in, 199, ,
misinformation consumption patterns,
political polarization effects vs. other countries, 49
selective exposure to news, 151
transparency developments for government in,
United States Congress, political advertising rules,
United States presidential election of 2016
bots in, 89
computational propaganda in,
disinformation impact, 257
disinformation suppliers, 14,
internet platform content takedown reporting,
rate of hate speech during and after,
trolling during, 256
United States v. Alvarez, 276
Urban study of content notice and takedown,
user level liability, pros and cons to applying to platforms,
“us vs. them,” to identify othering in hate speech, 60
vaccine debate, bot manipulation of, 100
Van Alstyne, Marshall, 36
van der Linden, S., 180
van Dijck, José, 147
VanDuyn, E., 25
Vargo, C. J., 23
Viacom v. YouTube, 232
virtual bystander effect, corrections of misinformation on social media, 185
Volokh, Eugene, 237
Vosoughi, S., 22
Walter, N., 184
Warner, Mark, 199
Webster, James, 139
Weichart, Stephan, 204
Westwood, Sean J., 39
WhatsApp, , 328
WhoTargetsMe, 300
wikiedits bots, 95
Williams, Christine B.,
Williams, Ev, 279
Winter, Fabian, 75
“wisdom of the crowds,” failure of,
Wittes, Benjamin, 278
Wood, T. J., 172
Woolley, Samuel C., 90
worldview backfire effects,
avoiding, 171
backlash against,
identifying, 173
Republicans vs. Democrats, 180
worldviews, tailoring correction of misinformation to antagonists’,
Wu, Tim, 268
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