Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-gtxcr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-16T08:03:36.471Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Weeds in a Changing Climate

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  12 June 2017

David T. Patterson
David T. Patterson*
Affiliation:
U.S. Dept. Agric., Agric. Res. Serv., Univ. Florida AREC, 2199 South Rock Rd., Ft. Pierce, FL 34945-3138
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Current and projected increases in the concentrations of CO2 and other radiatively-active gases in the Earth's atmosphere lead to concern over possible impacts on agricultural pests. All pests would be affected by the global warming and consequent changes in precipitation, wind patterns, and frequencies of extreme weather events which may accompany the “greenhouse effect.” However, only weeds are likely to respond directly to the increasing CO2 concentration. Higher CO2 will stimulate photosynthesis and growth in C3 weeds and reduce stomatal aperture and increase water use efficiency in both C3 and C4 weeds. Respiration, and photosynthate composition, concentration, and translocation may be affected. Perennial weeds may become more difficult to control, if increased photosynthesis stimulates greater production of rhizomes and other storage organs. Changes in leaf surface characteristics and excess starch accumulation in the leaves of C3 weeds may interfere with herbicidal control. Global warming and other climatic changes will affect the growth, phenology, and geographical distribution of weeds. Aggressive species of tropical and subtropical origins, currently restricted to the southern U.S., may expand northward. Any direct or indirect consequences of the CO2 increase that differentially affect the growth or fitness of weeds and crops will alter weed-crop competitive interactions, sometimes to the detriment of the crop and sometimes to its benefit.

Keywords

Greenhouse effectcompetitionweed distribution
Type
Special Topics
Information
Weed Science , Volume 43 , Issue 4 , December 1995 , pp. 685 - 700
Copyright
Copyright © 1995 by the Weed Science Society of America 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

LITERATURE CITED

1. Ackerly, D. D., Coleman, J. S., Morse, S. R., and Bazzaz, F. A. 1992. CO2 and temperature effects on leaf production in two annual plant species. Ecology 73:1260–1269.Google Scholar
2. Acock, B. 1990. Effects of carbon dioxide on photosynthesis, plant growth, and other processes. Pages 45–60 in Kimball, B. A., Rosenberg, N. J., and Allen, L. H. Jr., eds., Impact of carbon dioxide, trace gases, and climate change on global agriculture. ASA Spec. Publ. 53. ASA, CSSA, and SSSA, Madison, WI.Google Scholar
3. Acock, B. and Allen, L. H. Jr. 1985. Crop responses to elevated carbon dioxide concentrations. Pages 53–97 in Strain, B. R. and Cure, J. D., eds., Direct effects of increasing carbon dioxide on vegetation. U.S. D.O.E. Washington, D.C. DOE/ER-0238.Google Scholar
4. Amthor, J. S. 1991. Respiration in a future, higher-CO2 world. Plant Cell Envir. 14:13–20.Google Scholar
5. Arp, W. J. 1991. Effects of source-sink relations on photosynthetic acclimation to elevated CO2 . Plant Cell Envir. 14:869–875.Google Scholar
6. Ashmore, M. 1990. The greenhouse gases. Trends Ecol. Evol. 5:296–297.Google Scholar
7. Baker, J. T., Allen, L. H. Jr., Boote, K. J., Jones, P., and Jones, J. W. 1989. Response of soybean to air temperature and carbon dioxide concentration. Crop Sci. 29:98–105.Google Scholar
8. Bazzaz, F. A. 1990. The response of natural ecosystems to the rising global CO2 levels. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 21:167–196.Google Scholar
9. Bazzaz, F. A. and Carlson, R. W. 1984. The response of plants to elevated CO2. I. Competition among an assemblage of annuals at two levels of soil moisture. Oecologia 62:196–198.Google Scholar
10. Bazzaz, F. A. and Garbutt, K. 1988. The response of annuals in competitive neighborhoods: Effects of elevated CO2 . Ecology 69:937–946.Google Scholar
11. Bazzaz, F. A., Garbutt, K., Reekie, E. G., and Williams, W. E. 1989. Using growth analysis to interpret competition between a C3 and a C4 annual under ambient and elevated CO2 . Oecologia 79:223–235.Google Scholar
12. Bhattacharya, N. C., Hileman, D. R., Ghosh, P. P., Musser, R. L., Bhattacharya, S., and Biswas, P. K. 1990. Interaction of enriched CO2 and water stress on the physiology of and biomass production in sweet potato grown in open top chambers. Plant Cell Envir. 13:933–940.Google Scholar
13. Bloom, A. J. 1986. Plant economics. Trends Ecol. Evol. 1:98–100.Google Scholar
14. Bowes, G. 1991. Growth at elevated CO2: photosynthetic responses mediated through Rubisco. Plant Cell Envir. 14:795–806.Google Scholar
15. Bunce, J. A. 1990. Short- and long-term inhibition of respiratory carbon dioxide efflux by elevated carbon dioxide. Ann. Bot. 65:637–642.Google Scholar
16. Bunce, J. A. and Caulfield, F. 1991. Reduced respiratory carbon dioxide efflux during growth at elevated carbon dioxide in three herbaceous perennial species. Ann. Bot. 67:325–330.Google Scholar
17. Carlson, R. W. and Bazzaz, F. A. 1980. The effects of elevated CO2 concentrations on growth, photosynthesis, transpiration and water use efficiency of plants. Pages 610–622 in Singh, J. J. and Deepak, A., eds. Environmental and climatic impact of coal utilization. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
18. Carlson, R. W. and Bazzaz, F. A. 1982. Photosynthetic and growth response to fumigation with SO2 at elevated CO2 for C3 and C4 plants. Oecologia 54:50–54.Google Scholar
19. Carter, D. R. and Peterson, K. M. 1983. Effects of a CO2 enriched atmosphere on the growth and competitive interaction of a C3 and a C4 grass. Oecologia 58:188–193.Google Scholar
20. Choudhuri, U. N., Kirkham, M. B., and Kanemasu, E. T. 1990. Carbon dioxide and water level effects on yield and water use of winter wheat. Agron. J. 82:637–641.Google Scholar
21. Choudhuri, U. N., Kirkham, M. B., and Kanemasu, E. T. 1990. Root growth of winter wheat under elevated carbon dioxide and drought. Crop Sci. 30:853–857.Google Scholar
22. Christie, E.K. and Detling, J.K. 1982. Analysis of interference between C3 and C4 grasses in relation to temperature and soil nitrogen supply. Ecology 63:1277–1284.Google Scholar
23. Coleman, J. S. and Bazzaz, F. A. 1992. Interacting effects of elevated CO2 and temperature on growth and resource use of co-occurring C3 and C4 annuals. Ecology 73:1244–1259.Google Scholar
24. Coleman, J. S., Rochefort, L., Bazzaz, F. A., and Woodward, F. I. 1991. Atmospheric CO2, plant nitrogen status and the susceptibility of plants to an acute increase in temperature. Plant Cell Envir. 14:667–674.Google Scholar
25. Cure, J.D. 1985. Carbon dioxide doubling responses: a crop survey. Pages 99–116 in Strain, B. R. and Cure, J. D., eds., Direct effects of increasing carbon dioxide on vegetation. U.S. D.O.E., Washington, DC., DOE/ER-0238.Google Scholar
26. Cure, J. D. and Acock, B. 1986. Crop responses to carbon dioxide doubling: A literature survey. Agric. For. Meteorol. 38:127–145.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
27. Cure, J. D., Israel, D. W., and Rufty, T. W. Jr. 1988. Nitrogen stress effects on growth and seed yield of nonnodulated soybean exposed to elevated carbon dioxide. Crop Sci. 28:671–677.Google Scholar
28. Cure, J. D., Israel, D. W., and Rufty, T. W. Jr. 1988. Phosphorous stress effects on growth and seed yield responses of nonnodulated soybean to elevated carbon dioxide. Agron. J. 80:897–902.Google Scholar
29. DeLucia, E. H., Sasek, T. W., and Strain, B. R. 1985. Photosynthetic inhibition after long-term exposure to elevated levels of carbon dioxide. Photosyn. Res. 7:175–184.Google Scholar
30. Denmead, O. T. 1991. Sources and sinks of greenhouse gases in the soil-plant environment. Vegetatio 91:73–86.Google Scholar
31. Eamus, D. 1991. The interaction of rising CO2 and temperatures with water use efficiency. Plant Cell Envir. 14:843–852.Google Scholar
32. Ehleringer, J. and Bjorkman, O. 1977. Quantum yields for CO2 uptake in C3 and C4 plants: Dependence on temperature, CO2, and O2 concentration. Plant Physiol. 59:86–90.Google Scholar
33. Fabricius, L. J. and Nalewaja, J. D. 1968. Competition between wheat and wild buckwheat. Weed Sci. 16:204–208.Google Scholar
34. Fajer, E. D., Bowers, M. D., and Bazzaz, F. A. 1991. Performance and allocation patterns of the perennial herb, Plantago lanceolata, in response to simulated herbivory and elevated CO2 environments. Oecologia 87:37–42.Google Scholar
35. Flint, E. P. and Patterson, D. T. 1983. Interference and temperature effects on growth in soybean (Glycine max) and associated C3 and C4 weeds. Weed Sci. 31:193–199.Google Scholar
36. Hint, E. P., Patterson, D. T., and Beyers, J. L. 1983. Interference and temperature effects on growth of cotton (Gossypium hirsutum), spurred anoda (Anoda cristata), and velvetleaf (Abutilon theophrasti). Weed Sci. 31:892–898.Google Scholar
37. Flint, E. P., Patterson, D. T., Mortensen, D. A., Riechers, G. H., and Beyers, J. L. 1984. Temperature effects on growth and leaf production in three weed species. Weed Sci. 32:655–663.Google Scholar
38. Ford, M. A. and Thorne, G. N. 1967. Effect of CO2 concentration on growth of sugar-beet, barley, kale, and maize. Ann. Bot. 31:629–644.Google Scholar
39. Garbutt, K. and Bazzaz, F. A. 1984. The effects of elevated CO2 on plants. III. Flower, fruit and seed production and abortion. New Phytol. 98:433–446.Google Scholar
40. Garbutt, K., Williams, W. E., and Bazzaz, F. A. 1990. Analysis of the differential response of five annuals to elevated CO2 during growth. Ecology 71:1185–1194.Google Scholar
41. Gifford, R. M. and Morison, J. I. L. 1985. Photosynthesis, water use and growth of a C4 grass stand at high CO2 concentrations. Photosyn. Res. 7:69–76.Google Scholar
42. Gifford, R. M., Lambers, H., and Morison, J. I. L. 1985. Respiration of crop species under CO2 enrichment. Physiol. Plant. 63:351–356.Google Scholar
43. Goudriaan, J. and de Ruiter, H. E. 1983. Plant growth in response to CO2 enrichment at two levels of nitrogen and phosphorus supply. Neth. J. Agric. Sci. 31:157–169.Google Scholar
44. Goudriaan, J. and Unsworth, M. H. 1990. Implications of increasing carbon dioxide and climate change for agricultural productivity and water resources. Pages 111–130 in Kimball, B. A., Rosenberg, N. J., and Allen, L. H. Jr., eds., Impact of carbon dioxide, trace gases, and climate change on global agriculture. ASA Spec Publ. No. 53, ASA, Madison, WI, USA.Google Scholar
45. Gruenhagen, R. D. and Nalewaja, J. D. 1969. Competition between flax and wild buckwheat. Weed Sci. 17:380–384.Google Scholar
46. Harlan, J. R. 1975. Crops and man. ASA and CSSA, Madison, WI.Google Scholar
47. Hatzios, K. K. and Penner, D. 1982. Metabolism of herbicides in higher plants. CEPCO Div., Burgess Publ., Edina, MN.Google Scholar
48. Hesketh, J. D. and Hellmers, H. 1973. Floral initiation in four plant species growing in CO2 enriched air. Envir. Control in Biol. 11:51–53.Google Scholar
49. Hofstra, G. and Hesketh, J. D. 1975. The effects of temperature and CO2 enrichment on photosynthesis in soybean. Pages 71–80 in Marcelle, R., ed., Environmental and biological control of photosynthesis. W. Junk, The Hague.Google Scholar
50. Holm, L. G., Plucknett, D. L., Pancho, J. V., and Herberger, J. P. 1977. The world's worst weeds: Distribution and biology. Univ. of Hawaii Press, Honolulu.Google Scholar
51. Houghton, J. T., Callander, B. A., and Varney, S. K. 1992. Climate Change 1992. The supplementary report to the IPCC Scientific Assessment. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Meteorological Office, Bracknell, U.K. Google Scholar
52. Hrubec, T. C., Robinson, J. M., and Donaldson, R. P. 1985. Effects of CO2 enrichment and carbohydrate content on the dark respiration of soybeans. Plant Physiol. 79:684–689.Google Scholar
53. Hunt, R. and Lloyd, P. S. 1987. Growth and partitioning. New Phytol. 106:235–249.Google Scholar
54. Hunt, R., Hand, D. W., Hannah, M. A., and Neal, A. M. 1991. Response to CO2 enrichment in 27 herbaceous species. Funct. Ecol. 5:410–421.Google Scholar
55. Idso, S. B. 1988. Three phases of plant response to atmospheric CO2 enrichment Plant Physiol. 87:5–7.Google Scholar
56. Idso, S. B. 1990. The carbon dioxide/trace gas greenhouse effect: greatly overestimated? Pages 19–26 in Kimball, B. A., Rosenberg, N. J., and Allen, L. H. Jr., eds., Impact of carbon dioxide, trace gases, and climate change on global agriculture. ASA Spec Publ. No. 53, ASA, Madison, WI, USA.Google Scholar
57. Idso, S. B. 1990. Interactive effects of carbon dioxide and climate variables on plant growth. Pages 61–69 in Kimball, B. A., Rosenberg, N. J., and Allen, L. H. Jr., eds., Impact of carbon dioxide, trace gases, and climate change. on global agriculture. ASA Spec Publ. No. 53, ASA, Madison, WI, USA.Google Scholar
58. Idso, S. B., Kimball, B. A., Anderson, M. G., and Mauney, J. R. 1987. Effects of atmospheric CO2 enrichment on plant growth: the interactive role of air temperature. Agric. Ecosyst. Envir. 20:1–10.Google Scholar
59. Idso, S. B., Allen, S. G., Anderson, M. G., and Kimball, B. A. 1989. Atmospheric CO2 enrichment enhances survival of Azolla at high temperatures. Environ. Exptl. Bot. 29:337–341.Google Scholar
60. Jarvis, P. G. 1986. Stomatal control of transpiration: Scaling up from pore to paddock. Pages 20–23 in Rosenzweig, C. and Dickinson, R., eds., Climate-vegetation interactions. OIES/UCAR, Boulder, CO, USA.Google Scholar
61. Johnson, H. B., Polley, H. W., and Mayeux, H. S. 1993. Increasing CO2 and plant-plant interactions: Effects on natural vegetation. Vegetatio 104/105:157–170.Google Scholar
62. Katz, R. W. and Brown, B. G. 1992. Extreme events in a changing climate: Variability is more important than averages. Clim. Change 21:289–302.Google Scholar
63. Kemp, P.A. and Williams, G. J. III. 1980. A physiological basis for niche separation between Agropyron smithii (C3) and Bouteloua gracilis (C4). Ecology 61:846–858.Google Scholar
64. Kimball, B. A. 1983. Carbon dioxide and agricultural yield: an assemblage and analysis of 770 prior observations. WCL Report 14. U.S. Water Conserv. Lab., U.S. Dep. Agric. Agric. Res. Serv., Phoenix, AZ.Google Scholar
65. Kramer, P. J. 1981. Carbon dioxide concentration, photosynthesis, and dry matter production. BioScience 31:29–33.Google Scholar
66. Larigauderie, A., Hilbert, D. W., and Oechel, W. C. 1988. Effect of CO2 enrichment and nitrogen availability on resource acquisition and resource allocation processes in a grass, Bromus mollis . Oecologia 77:544–549.Google Scholar
67. Long, S. P. 1991. Modification of the response of photosynthetic productivity to rising temperature by atmospheric CO2 concentrations: Has its importance been underestimated? Plant Cell Envir. 14:729–739.Google Scholar
68. MacCracken, M. C., Budyko, M. I., Hecht, A. D., and Izrael, Y. A. 1990. Prospects for future climate. Lewis Publ. Inc., Chelsea, MI, USA. Pages 65–112.Google Scholar
69. McWhorter, C. G. and Patterson, D. T. 1980. Ecological factors affecting weed competition in soybeans. Pages 371–392 in Corbin, F. T., ed., World Soybean Research Conference II: Proceedings. Westview Press, Boulder, CO.Google Scholar
70. Mearns, L. O., Katz, R. W., and Schneider, S. H. 1984. Extreme high temperature events: Changes in their probabilities with changes in mean temperature. J. Clim. Appl. Meteorol. 23:1601–1613.Google Scholar
71. Mearns, L. O., Rosenzweig, C., and Goldberg, R. 1992. Effect of changes in interannual climatic variability on CERES-wheat yields: sensitivity and 2 x CO2 general circulation model studies. Agric. For. Meteorol. 62:159–189.Google Scholar
72. Messenger, P. S., Biliotti, E., and van den Bosch, R. 1976. The importance of natural enemies in integrated control. Pages 543–563 in Huffaker, C. B. and Messenger, P. S., ed. Theory and practice of biological control. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
73. Millhollon, R. W. 1975. Weed watch. Weeds Today 6(4):20.Google Scholar
74. Morison, J. I. L. 1985. Sensitivity of stomata and water use efficiency to high CO2 . Plant Cell Envir. 8:467–474.Google Scholar
75. Morison, J. I. L. and Gifford, R. M. 1983. Stomatal sensitivity to carbon dioxide and humidity. A comparison of two C3 and two C4 grass species. Plant Physiol. 71:789–796.Google Scholar
76. Morison, J. I. L. and Gifford, R. M. 1984. Plant growth and water use with limited water supply in high CO2 concentrations. I. Leaf area, water use and transpiration. Aust. J. Plant Physiol. 11:361–74.Google Scholar
77. Morison, J. I. L. and Gifford, R. M. 1984. Plant growth and water use with limited water supply in high CO2 concentrations. EL Plant dry weight, partitioning and water use efficiency. Aust. J. Plant Physiol. 11:375–384.Google Scholar
78. Muchow, R. C. and Sinclair, T. R. 1991. Water deficit effects on maize yields modeled under current and “greenhouse” climates. Agron. J. 83:1052–1059.Google Scholar
79. Muzik, T. J. 1976. Influence of environmental factors on toxicity to plants. Pages 204–247 in Audus, L. J., ed., Herbicides: Physiology, biochemistry, ecology. 2nd ed. vol. 2. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
80. Nijs, I., Impens, I., and Behage, T. 1988. Effects of rising atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration on gas exchange and growth of perennial ryegrass. Photosynthetica 22:44–50.Google Scholar
81. Nijs, I., Impens, I., and Behaeghe, T. 1989. Leaf and canopy responses of Lolium perenne to long-term elevated atmospheric carbon-dioxide enrichment. Planta 177:312–320.Google Scholar
82. Ode, D.J., Tieszen, L.L., and Lerman, J.C. 1980. The seasonal contribution of C3 and C4 plant species to primary production in a mixed prairie. Ecology 61:1304–1311.Google Scholar
83. Oechel, W. C. and Strain, B. R. 1985. Native species responses to increased atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration. Pages 117–154 in Strain, B. R. and Cure, J. D., eds., Direct effects of increasing carbon dioxide on vegetation. DOE/ER-0238, U.S. DOE, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
84. Paez, A., Hellmers, H., and Strain, B. R. 1980. CO2 effects on apical dominance in Pisum sativum . Physiol. Plant. 50:43–46.Google Scholar
85. Paez, A., Hellmers, H., and Strain, B. R. 1983. CO2 enrichment, drought stress and growth of Alaska pea plants (Pisum sativum). Physiol. Plant. 58:161–165.Google Scholar
86. Parry, M. L. and Carter, T. R. 1985. The effect of climatic variation on agricultural risk. Clim. Change 7:95–110.Google Scholar
87. Patterson, D. T. 1985. Comparative ecophysiology of weeds and crops. Pages 101–129 in Duke, S. O., ed., Weed Physiology. Vol. 1. Reproduction and ecophysiology. CRC press, Boca Raton, FL.Google Scholar
88. Patterson, D. T. 1986. Responses of soybean (Glycine max) and three C4 grass weeds to CO2 enrichment during drought. Weed Sci. 34:203–210.Google Scholar
89. Patterson, D. T. 1990. Effects of day and night temperature on vegetative growth of Texas panicum (Panicum texanum). Weed Sci. 38:365–373.Google Scholar
90. Patterson, D. T. 1993. Implications of global climate change for impact of weeds, insects, and plant diseases. pp. 273–280 in Buxton, D. R., ed., International crop science I. Crop Science Soc. Amer., Madison, WI.Google Scholar
91. Patterson, D. T. and Flint, E. P. 1980. Potential effects of global atmospheric CO2 enrichment on the growth and competitiveness of C3 and C4 weed and crop plants. Weed Sci. 28:71–75.Google Scholar
92. Patterson, D. T. and Hint, E. P. 1982. Interacting effects of CO2 and nutrient concentration. Weed Sci. 30:389–394.Google Scholar
93. Patterson, D. T. and Flint, E. P. 1990. Implications of increasing carbon dioxide and climate change for plant communities and competition in natural and managed ecosystems. Pages 83–110 in Kimball, B. A., Rosenberg, N. J., and Allen, L. H. Jr., eds., Impact of carbon dioxide, trace gases, and climate change on global agriculture. ASA Spec Publ. No. 53, ASA, Madison, WI, USA.Google Scholar
94. Patterson, D. T., Meyer, C. R., Flint, E. P., and Quimby, P. C. Jr. 1979. Temperature responses and potential distribution of itchgrass (Rottboellia exaltata) in the United States. Weed Sci. 27:77–82.Google Scholar
95. Patterson, D. T., Flint, E. P., and Dickens, R. 1980. Effects of temperature, photoperiod, and population source on the growth of cogongrass (Imperata cylindrica). Weed Sci. 28:505–509.Google Scholar
96. Patterson, D. T. Musser, R. L., Flint, E. P., and Eplee, R. E. 1982. Temperature responses and potential for spread of witchweed (Striga lutea) in the United States. Weed Sci. 30:87–93.Google Scholar
97. Patterson, D. T., Flint, E. P., and Beyers, J. L. 1984. Effects of CO2 enrichment on competition between a C4 weed and a C3 crop. Weed Sci. 32:101–105.Google Scholar
98. Patterson, D. T., Russell, A. E., Mortensen, D. A., Coffin, R. D., and Flint, E. P. 1986. Effects of temperature and photoperiod on Texas panicum (Panicum texanum) and wild proso millet (Panicum miliaceum). Weed Sci. 34:876–882.Google Scholar
99. Patterson, D. T., Highsmith, M. T., and Hint, E. P. 1988. Effects of temperature and CO2 concentration on the growth of cotton (Gossypium hirsutum), spurred anoda (Anoda cristata), and velvetleaf (Abutilon theophrasti). Weed Sci. 36:751–757.Google Scholar
100. Pearman, G. I. 1988. Greenhouse gases: evidence for atmospheric changes and anthropogenic causes. Pages 3–21 in Pearman, G. I., ed. Greenhouse planning for climate change. CSIRO, Australia.Google Scholar
101. Pittock, A. B. 1988. Regional climatic change and its impacts. Page 98–109 in Global change: Proc. of the Elizabeth and Frederick White Research Conf., Canberra Australian Acad. Sci., Canberra.Google Scholar
102. Poorter, H. 1993. Interspecific variation in the growth response of plants to an elevated ambient CO2 concentration. Vegetatio 104/105:77–97.Google Scholar
103. Poorter, H., Pot, S., and Lambers, H. 1988. The effect of an elevated atmospheric CO2 concentration on growth, photosynthesis and respiration of Plantago major . Physiol. Plant. 73:553–559.Google Scholar
104. Porter, J. H., Parry, M. L., and Carter, T. R. 1991. The potential effects of climatic change on agricultural insect pests. Agric. For. Meteorol. 57:221–240.Google Scholar
105. Potvin, C. 1985. Amelioration of chilling effects by CO2 enrichment. Physiol. Veg. 23:345–352.Google Scholar
106. Potvin, C. and Strain, B. R. 1985. Effects of CO2 enrichment and temperature on growth in two C4 weeds, Echinochloa crus-galli and Eleusine indica . Can. J. Bot. 63:1495–1499.Google Scholar
107. Prescott,-Allen, R. and Prescott-Allen, C. 1990. How many plants feed the world? Conserv. Biol. 4:365–374.Google Scholar
108. Prestidge, R. A. and Porringer, R. P. 1990. The impact of climate change on pests, diseases, weeds and beneficial organisms present in New Zealand agricultural and horticultural systems. New Zealand Ministry for the Environment, Wellington.Google Scholar
109. Radoglou, K. M., Aphalo, P., and Jarvis, P. G. 1992. Response of photosynthesis, stomatal conductance and water use efficiency to elevated CO2 and nutrient supply in acclimated seedlings of Phaseolus vulgaris L. Ann. Bot. 70:257–264.Google Scholar
110. Rahman, A. and Wardle, D. A. 1990. Effects of climate change on cropping weeds in New Zealand. Pages 107–112 in Prestidge, R. A. and Pottinger, R. P., eds., The impact of climate change on pests, diseases, weeds and beneficial organisms present in New Zealand agricultural and horticultural systems. New Zealand Ministry for the Environment, Wellington.Google Scholar
111. Roeckner, E. 1992. Past, present and future levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and model projections of related climatic changes. J. Exp. Bot. 43:1097–1109.Google Scholar
112. Rosenzweig, C. 1985. Potential CO2 induced climate effects on North American wheat-producing regions. Clim. Change 7:367–389.Google Scholar
113. Rowntree, P. R. 1990. Predicted climate changes under “greenhouse-gas” warming. Pages 18–33 in Jackson, M. T., Ford-Lloyd, B. V., and Parry, M. L., eds. Climate change and plant genetic resources. Belhaven Press, London.Google Scholar
114. Rozema, J., Dorel, F., Janissen, R., Lenssen, G., Broekman, R., Arp, W., and Drake, B. G. 1991. Effect of elevated atmospheric CO2 on growth, photosynthesis and water relations of salt marsh grass species. Aquatic Bot. 39:45–55.Google Scholar
115. Sage, R. F., Sharkey, T. D., and Seeman, J. R. 1989. Acclimation of photosynthesis to elevated CO2 in five C3 species. Plant Physiol. 89:590–596.Google Scholar
116. Sasek, T. W. and Strain, B. R. 1990. Implications of atmospheric CO2 enrichment and climatic change for the geographical distribution of two introduced vines in the U.S.A. Clim. Change 16:31–51.Google Scholar
117. Sasek, T. W., DeLucia, E. H., and Strain, B. R. 1985. Reversibility of photosynthetic inhibition in cotton after long-term exposure to elevated CO2 concentrations. Plant Physiol. 78:619–622.Google Scholar
118. Schneider, S. H. 1992. The climatic response to greenhouse gases. Adv. Ecol. Res. 22:1–32.Google Scholar
119. Sinclair, T. R. 1992. Mineral nutrition and plant growth response to climate change. J. Exp. Bot. 43:1141–1146.Google Scholar
120. Sionit, N. 1983. Response of soybean to two levels of mineral nutrition in CO2-enriched atmosphere. Crop Sci. 23:329–333.Google Scholar
121. Sionit, N. and Patterson, D. T. 1984. Responses of C4 grasses to atmospheric CO2 enrichment. I. Effect of irradiance. Oecologia 65:30–34.Google Scholar
122. Sionit, N., Hellmers, H., and Strain, B. R. 1980. Growth and yield of wheat under CO2 enrichment and water stress. Crop Sci. 20:687–690.Google Scholar
123. Sionit, N., Strain, B. R., and Beckford, H. A. 1981. Environmental controls on the growth and yield of okra. I. Effects of temperature and of CO2 enrichment at cool temperature. Crop Sci. 21:885–888.Google Scholar
124. Sionit, N., Mortensen, D. A., Strain, B. R., and Hellmers, H. 1981. Growth response of wheat to CO2 enrichment and different levels of mineral nutrition. Agron. J. 73:1023–1027.Google Scholar
125. Sionit, N., Hellmers, H., and Strain, B. R. 1982. Interaction of atmospheric CO2 enrichment and irradiance on plant growth. Agron. J. 74:721–725.Google Scholar
126. Sionit, N., Strain, B. R., and Flint, E. P. 1987. Interaction of temperature and CO2 enrichment on soybean: growth and dry matter partitioning. Can. J. Plant Sci. 67:59–67.Google Scholar
127. Sionit, N., Strain, B. R., and Flint, E. P. 1987. Interaction of temperature and CO2 enrichment on soybean: Photosynthesis and seed yield. Can. J. Plant Sci. 67:629–636.Google Scholar
128. Smith, S. D., Strain, B. R., and Sharkey, T. D. 1987. Effects of CO2 enrichment on four Great Basin grasses. Funct. Ecol. 1:139–143.Google Scholar
129. Stinner, B. R., Taylor, R.A.J., Hammond, R. B., Purrington, F. F., McCartney, D. A., Rodenhouse, N., and Barrett, G. W. 1987. Potential effects of climate change on plant-pest interactions. pp. 8–1–8–35 in Smith, J. and Tirpak, D. (eds.) The potential effects of global climate change on the United States. U.S. EPA, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
130. Strain, B. R. 1992. Atmospheric carbon dioxide: A plant fertilizer? New Biol. 4:87–89.Google Scholar
131. Strain, B. R. and Bazzaz, F. A. 1983. Terrestrial plant communities. Pages 177–222 in Lemon, E. R., ed., CO2 and plants: the response of plants to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide. Westview press, Boulder, Co.Google Scholar
132. Taylor, K. E. and MacCracken, M.C. 1990. Projected effects of increasing concentrations of carbon dioxide and trace gases on climate Pages 1–17 in Kimball, B. A., Rosenberg, N. J., and Allen, L. H. Jr., ed., Impact of carbon dioxide, trace gases, and climate change on global agriculture. ASA Spec. Publ. 53. ASA, CSSA, and SSSA, Madison, WI.Google Scholar
133. Thomas, R. B. 1987. Responses of two summer annuals to interactions of atmospheric carbon dioxide and soil nitrogen. Ph. D. Thesis, Clemson Univ., Clemson, SC. 167 pages.Google Scholar
134. Thomas, R. B. and Strain, B. R. 1991. Root restriction as a factor in photosynthetic acclimation of cotton seedlings grown in elevated carbon dioxide. Plant Physiol. 96:627–634.Google Scholar
135. Tremmel, D. C. and Patterson, D. T. 1993. Responses of soybean and five weeds to CO2 enrichment under two temperature regimes. Can. J. Plant Sci. 73:1249–1260.Google Scholar
136. U.S. Dept. Agric. 1972. Extent and cost of weed control with herbicides and an evaluation of important weeds, 1968. ARS-H-1, 227 pages.Google Scholar
137. Vengris, J., Colby, W. G., and Drake, M. 1955. Plant nutrient competition between weeds and corn. Agron. J. 47:213–216.Google Scholar
138. Verduin, J. 1952. Limiting factors. Science 115:23.Google Scholar
139. Waggoner, P. E. 1983. Agriculture and a climate changed by more carbon dioxide. Page 383–418 in Changing climate: Report of the Carbon Dioxide Assessment Committee. National Academy Press, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
140. Waggoner, P. E., Bula, R. J., Calpouzos, L., Gutierrez, A. P., Schreiber, M. M., and Zentmeyer, G. A. 1976. Pest management. Page 106–130 in National Research Council. Climate and food. National Academy of Sciences. Washington, DC.Google Scholar
141. Wheeler, R. M., Tibbitts, T. W., and Fitzpatrick, A. H. 1991. Carbon dioxide effects on potato growth under different photoperiods and irradiance. Crop Sci. 31:1209–1213.Google Scholar
142. Wigley, T.M.E. 1985. Impact of extreme events. Nature (London) 316:106–107.Google Scholar
143. Williams, G.J., III. 1974. Photosynthetic adaptation to temperature in C3 and C4 grasses. A possible role in the shortgrass prairie. Plant Physiol. 54:709–711.Google Scholar
144. Williams, G.J., III and Markley, J.L. 1973. The photosynthetic pathway type of North American shortgrass prairie species and some ecological implications. Photosynthetica 7:262–270.Google Scholar
145. Wittwer, S. H. 1992. Flower power. Rising CO2 is great for plants. Policy Review. The Heritage Foundation. Fall 1992:Pages 3–9.Google Scholar
146. Wittwer, S. H. and Robb, W. 1964. Carbon dioxide enrichment of greenhouse atmospheres for food crop production. Econ. Bot. 18:34–56.Google Scholar
147. Wong, S. C. 1979. Elevated atmospheric partial pressure of CO2 and plant growth I. Interactions of nitrogen nutrition and photosynthetic capacity in C3 and C4 plants. Oecologia 44:68–74.Google Scholar
148. Wong, S. C. and Osmond, C. B. 1991. Elevated atmospheric partial pressure of CO2 and plant growth. III. Interactions between Triticum aestivum (C3) and Echinochloa frumentacea (C4) during growth under different CO2, N nutrition and irradiance treatments, with emphasis on below-ground responses estimated using the Δ13C value of root biomass. Aust. J. Plant Physiol. 18:137–152.Google Scholar
149. Woodward, F. I. 1988. Temperature and the distribution of plant species. Pages 59–75 in Long, S. P. and Woodward, F. I., ed., Plants and temperature. The Company of Biologists Ltd., Univ. of Cambridge, Cambridge.Google Scholar
150. Woodward, F. I. 1992. Tansley review no. 41. Predicting plant responses to global environmental change. New Phytol. 122:239–251.Google Scholar
151. Woodward, F. I. and Williams, B. G. 1987. Climate and plant distribution at global and local scales. Vegetatio 69:189–197.Google Scholar
152. Woodward, F. I., Thompson, G. B., and McKee, I. F. 1991. The effects of elevated concentrations of carbon dioxide on individual plants, populations, communities and ecosystems. Ann. Bot. 67:23–38.Google Scholar
153. Wray, S. M. and Strain, B. R. 1986. Response of two old field perennials to interactions of CO2 enrichment and drought stress. Am. J. Bot. 73:1486–1491.Google Scholar
154. Wray, S. M. and Strain, B. R. 1987. Competition in old–field perennials under CO2 enrichment. Funct. Ecol. 1:145–149.Google Scholar
155. Zangerl, A. R. and Bazzaz, F. A. 1984. The response of plants to elevated CO2. II. Competitive interactions among annual plants under varying light and nutrients. Oecologia 62:412–417.Google Scholar
156. Zimdahl, R. L. 1980. Weed crop competition: A review. International Plant Protection Center, Corvallis, OR.Google Scholar