Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-wq484 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-25T11:29:38.866Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

The amino acid substitution Phe-255-Ile in the psbA gene confers resistance to hexazinone in hair fescue (Festuca filiformis) plants from lowbush blueberry fields

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 June 2022

Martin Laforest
Affiliation:
Research Scientist, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu Research & Development Center, Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu, QC, Canada
Brahim Soufiane
Affiliation:
Research Associate, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu Research & Development Center, Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu, QC, Canada
Katherine Bisaillon
Affiliation:
Research Associate, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu Research & Development Center, Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu, QC, Canada
Marianne Bessette
Affiliation:
Research Associate, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu Research & Development Center, Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu, QC, Canada
Eric R. Page
Affiliation:
Research Scientist, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Harrow Research and Development Center, Harrow, ON, Canada
Scott N. White*
Affiliation:
Assistant Professor, Department of Plant, Food, and Environmental Sciences, Dalhousie University Faculty of Agriculture, Truro, NS, Canada
*
Author for correspondence: Scott N. White, Department of Plant, Food, and Environmental Sciences, Dalhousie University Faculty of Agriculture, P.O. Box 550, Truro, NS, B2N 5E3, Canada. Email: Scott.White@Dal.Ca
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Cultivation of lowbush blueberry (Vaccinium angustifolium Aiton), an important crop in the eastern part of North America, is unique, as it is carried out over the course of two consecutive growing seasons. Pest management, particularly weed management, is impacted by this biennial cultural practice. The choice of methods to control weeds is narrow, and such a system relies heavily on herbicides for weed management. Availability of unique herbicide active ingredients for weed management is limited, and available herbicides are used repeatedly, so the risk of developing resistance is acute. Hair fescue (Festuca filiformis Pourr.), a perennial grass weed, has evolved resistance to hexazinone, a photosystem II inhibitor frequently used in lowbush blueberry production. We show that substitution of phenylalanine to isoleucine at position 255 is responsible for a decreased sensitivity to hexazinone by a factor of 6.12. Early diagnosis of resistance based on the detection of the mutation will alert growers to use alternative control methods and thus help to increase the sustainability of the cropping system.

Type
Research Article
Creative Commons
Creative Common License - CCCreative Common License - BY
This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution licence (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted re-use, distribution and reproduction, provided the original article is properly cited.
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2022. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Weed Science Society of America

Introduction

Lowbush blueberry (Vaccinium angustifolium Aiton) is a rhizomatous perennial berry species (Hall et al. Reference Hall, Aalders, Nickerson and Vander Kloet1979) and is an economically important fruit crop in Canada that contributed Can$47.4 million to farm gate value in 2017 (Anonymous 2019). Lowbush blueberry fields are developed from natural stands (Anonymous 2019) that are managed under a 2-yr production cycle in which plants are pruned to ground level by flail mowing in the first year (nonbearing year) and emerged shoots flower and produce berries in the second year (bearing year) (Eaton et al. Reference Eaton, Glen and Wyllie2004; Wood Reference Wood2004). Fields are thus maintained as perennial no-till monocultures, making weed management difficult (McCully et al. Reference McCully, Sampson and Watson1991). The weed flora of lowbush blueberry fields is dominated by herbaceous and woody perennials (Jensen and Yarborough Reference Jensen and Yarborough2004; Lyu et al. Reference Lyu, McLean, McKenzie-Gopsill and White2021; McCully et al. Reference McCully, Sampson and Watson1991), with many species of perennial grasses being of particular concern (Anonymous 2019; Boyd et al. Reference Boyd, White and Rao2014; White and Zhang Reference White and Zhang2019) due to potential to reduce yields and inhibit harvest (Jensen and Specht Reference Jensen and Specht2004; Jensen and Yarborough Reference Jensen and Yarborough2004).

Hair fescue (Festuca filiformis Pourr.) is a caespitose, sod-forming perennial grass introduced from Europe and now well established in eastern and northwestern North America (USDA 2020). This grass occurs as a weed in lowbush blueberry fields, where it forms perennial sods that reduce yield by >50% (White Reference White2019; Zhang Reference Zhang2017; Zhang et al. Reference Zhang, White, Randall Olson, Pruski and Willenborg2018) and inhibit mechanical harvest. Occurrence of this weed in Nova Scotia lowbush blueberry fields decreased between 1984 to 1985 and 2000 to 2001 (McCully et al. Reference McCully, Sampson and Watson1991; KIN Jensen and MG Sampson, personal communication), likely due to control of this species by two photosystem II inhibitors, hexazinone and terbacil (Weed Science Society of America [WSSA] Group 5) (Jensen Reference Jensen1985a, Reference Jensen1985b; Sampson et al. Reference Sampson, McCully and Sampson1990; Smagula and Ismail Reference Smagula and Ismail1981). This grass, however, is now widespread in Nova Scotia lowbush blueberry fields (Lyu et al. Reference Lyu, McLean, McKenzie-Gopsill and White2021; White Reference White2018; White and Zhang Reference White and Zhang2020b; Zhang Reference Zhang2017; Zhang et al. Reference Zhang, White, Randall Olson, Pruski and Willenborg2018), and hexazinone no longer provides effective control (White Reference White2019; Yarborough and Cote Reference Yarborough and Cote2014; Zhang Reference Zhang2017). Terbacil efficacy is also variable (White and Zhang Reference White and Zhang2020a; Zhang Reference Zhang2017; Zhang et al. Reference Zhang, White, Randall Olson, Pruski and Willenborg2018) and generally limited to single-season suppression (White Reference White2019). Hexazinone resistance in F. filiformis populations in lowbush blueberry fields has been suspected since the early 2000s (Jensen and Yarborough Reference Jensen and Yarborough2004), though no work has been conducted to confirm the presence of resistant biotypes of this weed species in Nova Scotia.

Mechanisms of herbicide resistance in weeds can be classified into target-site resistance (TSR) and/or non–target site resistance (NTSR) (Jugulam and Shyam Reference Jugulam and Shyam2019; Powles and Yu Reference Powles and Yu2010). The TSR mechanisms involve mutation(s) in the target site of action of a herbicide, resulting in a target protein that is insensitive or less sensitive to the herbicide (Powles and Yu Reference Powles and Yu2010). The NTSR mechanisms include reduced herbicide uptake/translocation, increased herbicide metabolism, decreased rate of herbicide activation, and/or sequestration (Devine and Eberlein Reference Devine, Eberlein, Roe, Burton and Kuhr1997). Hexazinone has been used since the early 1980s as the primary preemergence herbicide in lowbush blueberry (Jensen Reference Jensen1985a; Yarborough Reference Yarborough2004; Yarborough and Jemison Reference Yarborough and Jemison1997). This herbicide inhibits photosynthesis by binding to D1 proteins encoded by the psbA gene, affecting CO2 fixation and the production of energy needed for plant growth. Selection for naturally occurring target-site mutations in the psbA gene that confer resistance to hexazinone are not widely reported in the literature, though prolonged use of hexazinone has selected for such target-site mutations in populations of shepherds’s-purse [Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik.] in alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) fields in Oregon (Perez-Jones et al. Reference Perez-Jones, Intanon and Mallory-Smith2009) and red sorrel (Rumex acetosella L.) in lowbush blueberry fields in Nova Scotia (Li et al. Reference Li, Boyd, McLean and Rutherford2014). Similar mutations may therefore have also been selected for in F. filiformis populations following prolonged hexazinone use in lowbush blueberry fields.

Although most herbicide resistance cases reported concern annual weeds (Beckie Reference Beckie2006; Holt and LeBaron Reference Holt and LeBaron1990; Holt et al. Reference Holt, Powles and Holtum1993), the phenomenon is also common in perennial weeds (Hodgson Reference Hodgson1970; Patton et al. Reference Patton, Weisenberger and Schortgen2018; Vila-Aiub et al. Reference Vila-Aiub, Balbi, Distefano, Fernandez, Hopp, Yu and Powles2012; Yanniccari et al. Reference Yanniccari, Istilart, Giménez and Castro2012), including some in lowbush blueberry fields (Li et al. Reference Li, Boyd, McLean and Rutherford2014). Herbicides continue to be the primary method for weed control in lowbush blueberry fields (Jensen and Yarborough Reference Jensen and Yarborough2004), and limited herbicide availability for perennial grass management is resulting in repeated use of herbicides with similar sites of action (White Reference White2019; White and Zhang Reference White and Zhang2019). This is a major factor contributing to development of herbicide resistance (Norsworthy et al. Reference Norsworthy, Ward, Shaw, Llewellyn, Nichols, Webster, Bradley, Frisvold, Powles, Burgos, Witt and Barrett2012), and it is imperative that herbicide-resistant weed biotypes be identified in lowbush blueberry so that priority weed species can be emphasized in future research and growers can adjust management practices accordingly.

The objectives of this study were to utilize (1) dose–response experiments to confirm suspected hexazinone resistance in a F. filiformis population collected from a lowbush blueberry field in Nova Scotia and (2) advanced molecular tools to identify the mechanism of resistance.

Materials and Methods

Material Source

Festuca filiformis seeds were collected from a commercial lowbush blueberry field in North River, Nova Scotia (45.464933°N, 63.212557°W) (suspected resistant biotype) and from a roadside population located at Glenholme, Nova Scotia (45.441523°N, 63.529923°W) (negative control). Seeds were maintained in the laboratory at room temperature in Nova Scotia for approximately 1 mo before being shipped to the Agriculture and AgriFood Canada Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu Research & Development Center, Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu, QC, Canada, for dose–response experiments and molecular analysis.

Seed Germination

Seeds of each biotype were germinated on moistened Whatman filter paper (Grade 2, GE Healthcare Life Sciences, Baie D’Urfé, QC, Canada) in petri dishes before planting. Petri dishes were sealed with parafilm (Parafilm M, Bemis Company, Neenah, WI, USA) and placed in a growth chamber set at 20 C with a photoperiod of 16 h and 70% relative humidity. Seeds germinated after 20 d, and seedlings were transferred into 9 cm by 9 cm pots containing Pro-Mix potting soil (Premier Tech, Rivière-du-Loup, QC, Canada) and placed in the growth chamber under the same conditions as were used for germination. After 25 d of growth (8 to 10 leaves), the plants were treated with herbicides for the dose–response experiment.

Dose–Response Experiment

The Group 5 herbicides hexazinone (Velpar® DF, Tessenderlo Kerley, Phoenix, AZ, USA) and terbacil (Sinbar® WDG, Tessenderlo Kerley) were used for the dose–response experiment. Recommended field rates for hexazinone (Velpar®) and terbacil (Sinbar®) were 1.92 and 2 kg ha−1, respectively. The experiment was arranged as a randomized complete block design, and 18 individuals of each biotype and repetition were treated with hexazinone at eight different doses (0X, 0.03X, 0.08X, 0.25X, 0.5X, 1X, 2X, and 4X times the label rate) and terbacil at nine different doses (0X, 0.01X, 0.03X, 0.08X, 0.25X, 0.5X, 1X, 2X, and 4X times the label rate) using a DeVries Manufacturing (Hollandale, MN, USA) moving-nozzle cabinet sprayer equipped with an 8001E-VS even-banding nozzle (TeeJet®, Springfield, PA, USA) calibrated to deliver 164 L ha−1 of spray solution at 207 kPa. The dose–response experiment was repeated three times for both herbicides. Treated plants were transferred to a greenhouse set at 25/20 C (day/night) with a photoperiod of 16 h. Plant dry biomass was determined by collecting all aboveground plant material in each pot at 21 d after treatment (DAT) and drying it at 70 C for 4 d before weighing. Log-logistic dose–response analysis was performed as described by Seefeldt et al. (Reference Seefeldt, Jensen and Fuerst1995), wherein the response in dry biomass (Y) is related to the herbicide dose (x) and used to determine the value of the slope (b) and GR50 value that would best fit the distribution of the values according to Equation 1:

(1) $$Y = C + \left\{ {\left( {D - C} \right)/\left[ {1 + \left( {x/G{R_{50}}} \right)b} \right]} \right\}$$

where C is the lower asymptote, D is the upper asymptote, b is the slope of the line at GR50, and GR50 is the herbicide dose generating a 50% reduction in dry biomass (Seefeldt et al. Reference Seefeldt, Jensen and Fuerst1995). The resistance factor was calculated by dividing the GR50 value of the resistant biotype by the GR50 value of the susceptible biotype. Calculations were performed with the R (R Core Team 2020) drc package (Ritz et al. Reference Ritz, Baty, Streibig and Gerhard2015).

DNA Extraction, psbA Gene Amplification, and Sequencing

Extraction of genomic DNA was performed using Qiagen DNeasy Plant Mini Kit (Qiagen, Mississauga, ON, Canada) according to the manufacturer’s instructions. The primer pair (FESTE-psbA FWD: 5′-CGTGAGCCTGTTTCTGGTTCTT-3′ and FESTE-psbA REV: 5′-CAGCTAGGTCTAGAGGGAAGTTGT-3′) was designed to amplify the gene region known to harbor resistance-causing mutations using the psbA gene sequence of red fescue (Festuca rubra L.) from GenBank (accession number: MN309826.1). Amplification of an 844-bp fragment was performed using Titanium® Taq DNA Polymerase (Takara Bio USA, CA, USA) under the following conditions: 95 C for 5 min; 35 cycles of denaturation for 30 s at 95 C, annealing for 30 s at 58 C, elongation at 68 C for 35 s, and a final elongation for 8 min at 68 C. The PCR products were visualized on agarose gel at 1% and sequenced at Genome Quebec Innovation Centre (Montreal, QC, Canada) using the dideoxynucleotide chain termination method (Sanger et al. Reference Sanger, Nicklen and Coulson1977). The partial sequences of psbA for both susceptible and resistant biotypes are available in GenBank (accession numbers: MZ394740 and MZ394739, respectively).

Protein Structure and Docking Analysis

Docking experiments used the wood fescue (Festuca altissima All.) psbA sequence (GenBank accession AFV62627.1 from the plastid sequence JX871939.1) with a phenylalanine to isoleucine change at position 255. Partial sequencing of the F. filiformis psbA gene revealed that amino acids residues 83 to 339 are identical (results not shown). Protein structure was determined by protein homology using the modeling server CPHmodels (v. 3.2; Nielsen et al. Reference Nielsen, Lundegaard, Lund and Petersen2010), and the structure of the active ingredients was obtained from the Toxin and Toxin-Target (T3) database (Wishart et al. Reference Wishart, Arndt, Pon, Sajed, Guo, Djoumbou, Knox, Wilson, Liang, Grant, Liu, Goldansaz and Rappaport2015). Determination of the binding area and visualization was done with AutoDock tools (Morris et al. Reference Morris, Huey, Lindstrom, Sanner, Belew, Goodsell and Olson2009). Blind docking calculation was done with AutoDock (Morris et al. Reference Morris, Huey, Lindstrom, Sanner, Belew, Goodsell and Olson2009). Results were visualized using PyMOL (PyMOL Molecular Graphics System, v. 2.0, Schrödinger, New York, NY, USA).

Development of a Genotyping Assay

A competitive allele-specific PCR (KASP) assay was used in this study to distinguish between susceptible and resistant biotypes. The partial sequence of the psbA gene (GenBank accession MT362604) was sent to LGC Genomics (Biosearch Technologies, Hoddesdon, Ware, UK) for the design and synthesis of the specific primers. The primer for the resistant allele (5′-AGCATATTGGAAGATTAATCGGCCAAT-3′) was synthetized with the addition of 3′ terminal 6-carboxyfluorescein (FAM) and the primer for the susceptible allele (5′-AGCATATTGGAAGATTAATCGGCCAAA-3′) was labeled with HEX fluorophore at the 3′ terminal. A common primer was used for both biotypes (5′-ACTTATAATATTGTGGCTGCTCATGGTTAT-3′). The genotyping reaction contained 0.14 μl of the assay mix, 5 μl of KASP Master mix, 1 μl of genomic DNA at 1 ng μl−1, and 4 μl of ddH2O. The KASP assay was performed on an AriaMx real-time PCR (Agilent, Santa Clara, CA, USA) with the following conditions: initial denaturation at 94 C for 15 min and 10 touchdown cycles of 20 s at 94 C and 1 min at 61 to 55 C (decreasing 0.6 C per cycle), followed by a second PCR amplification of 26 cycles at 94 C for 20 s and 55 C for 1 min and a final elongation at 30 C for 1 min 30 s.

Results and Discussion

A dose–response experiment was conducted with the s-triazine herbicide hexazinone and the uracil herbicide terbacil to assess potential resistance to these herbicides in a F. filiformis population from a lowbush blueberry field in Nova Scotia. Dry biomass of the F. filiformis plants from a roadside (susceptible) decreased more rapidly with increasing hexazinone dose than that of the F. filiformis plants from the blueberry field (resistant) (Figure 1). The estimated GR50 values were 582.1 and 95.1 g hexazinone ha−1 for the resistant and susceptible biotypes, respectively (Table 1), resulting in a resistance index of 6.1. In contrast, reductions in biomass of each biotype in response to increasing terbacil dose were similar (Figure 1), and the estimated GR50 values were 314.2 and 195.9 g terbacil ha−1 for the resistant and susceptible biotypes, respectively (Table 1), for a resistance index of only 1.6. Dose–response results therefore indicate that the F. filiformis population sampled from a lowbush blueberry field is resistant to hexazinone, which may explain the lack of hexazinone efficacy now observed on this weed species (White Reference White2019; Yarborough and Cote Reference Yarborough and Cote2014; Zhang Reference Zhang2017). Additional research, however, is needed to determine occurrence of resistance throughout the remainder of Nova Scotia, as our results are limited to one field population and factors other than resistance may affect hexazinone efficacy (Anonymous 2017; Minogue et al. Reference Minogue, Zutter and Gjerstad1988). Results also indicate that the F. filiformis population sampled from a lowbush blueberry field is susceptible to field rates of terbacil, despite incomplete control of this weed species with terbacil in lowbush blueberry fields (White and Zhang Reference White and Zhang2019; Zhang Reference Zhang2017; Zhang et al. Reference Zhang, White, Randall Olson, Pruski and Willenborg2018). Reasons for this are unclear, though it could be related to plant size at the time of application under field conditions. Festuca filiformis seedlings are susceptible to terbacil (White Reference White2018), but plants accumulate new leaves and tillers quickly (White and Kumar Reference White and Kumar2017), and plants in lowbush blueberry fields are usually established tufts with hundreds of leaves (Zhang et al. Reference Zhang, White, Randall Olson, Pruski and Willenborg2018; SNW, personal observation). Large (12-leaf) field violet (Viola arvensis Murray) plants absorbed and translocated less terbacil than small (3-leaf) plants (Doohan et al. Reference Doohan, Monaco and Sheets1992). Large plants also metabolized more terbacil than small plants, and Doohan et al. (Reference Doohan, Monaco and Sheets1992) indicated that field rates of terbacil commonly controlled V. arvensis seedlings but not established plants. A similar effect could occur with terbacil in F. filiformis in lowbush blueberry fields and, based on our results, should be explored further.

Figure 1. Effect of hexazinone (top) and terbacil (bottom) dose on dry biomass of suspected resistant (red) and susceptible (blue) Festuca filiformis biotypes. Lines are the predicted dry biomass obtained from a log-logistic dose–response equation of the form Y = C + {(DC)/[1 + (x/GR50)b]}, where C is the lower asymptote, D is the upper asymptote, b is the slope of the line at GR50, and GR50 is the herbicide dose generating a 50% reduction in dry biomass (Seefeldt et al. Reference Seefeldt, Jensen and Fuerst1995) as calculated with the drc package in R (Ritz et al. Reference Ritz, Baty, Streibig and Gerhard2015).

Table 1. Regression parameters of a four-parameter logistic dose–response equation explaining the relationship between herbicide dose (g ai ha−1) and Festuca filiformis dry weight at 21 d after treatment (DAT) with hexazinone or terbacil. a

a The equation was of the form Y = C + {(DC)/[1 + (x/GR50)b]}, where C is the lower asymptote, D is the upper asymptote, b is the slope of the line at GR50, and GR50 is the herbicide dose generating a 50% reduction in dry biomass (Seefeldt et al. Reference Seefeldt, Jensen and Fuerst1995).

With the advance of molecular techniques, the state of herbicide resistance can be quickly determined even when the mechanism is a priori unknown in certain cases. Several reviews of resistance-conferring mutations have been published (Beckie and Tardif Reference Beckie and Tardif2012; Murphy and Tranel Reference Murphy and Tranel2019), and there is enough information in the literature for the genotype of resistant individuals to be determined, usually via DNA sequencing. This information can be used to identify orthologous mutations in closely related species, especially when the gene targeted by the herbicide mode of action is evolutionarily conserved. The gene encoding the D1 protein of PSII targeted by WSSA Group 5 and 7 herbicides is evolutionarily conserved, and as such, the psbA gene sequence from the related species F. rubra was used to decipher the mechanism of resistance of F. filiformis. Amplification and sequencing of the mutation-containing region of psbA of the suspected hexazinone-resistant F. filiformis biotype from the lowbush blueberry field revealed a phenylalanine change to isoleucine at position 255 (Figure 2) (GenBank accession MT362604). This mutation is reported for the first time in F. filiformis. It was previously reported in C. bursa-pastoris (Perez-Jones et al. Reference Perez-Jones, Intanon and Mallory-Smith2009) and shown to confer resistance to hexazinone, a symmetrical triazine, and metribuzin, an asymmetrical triazine, but did not confer resistance to atrazine, terbacil, or diuron. In contrast, the psbA Phe-255-Val mutation that conferred resistance to hexazinone in R. acetosella (Li et al. Reference Li, Boyd, McLean and Rutherford2014) is different from the one we report, indicating that a range of mutations can confer resistance to hexazinone and that residue 255 plays a key role in the binding of the herbicide to the D1 protein.

Figure 2. Partial Festuca filiformis psbA sequence at the Phe-255-Ile locus. Comparison between the susceptible allele (top sequence) and the resistant allele (bottom sequence). The sequence TTT coding for phenylalanine is found in the wild-type sequence from F. filiformis, while the sequence ATT coding for isoleucine is found in the mutant allele conferring hexazinone resistance in F. filiformis.

Molecular docking (Figure 3) results indicate a higher affinity of hexazinone to the wild-type D1 protein (−6.45 kcal mol−1) than for the mutated form (−6.22 kcal mol−1) (Table 2), indicating hexazinone is more tightly bound to its ligand in the wild type and can better compete with plastoquinone at the QB binding pocket (Lambreva et al. Reference Lambreva, Russo, Polticelli, Scognamiglio, Antonacci, Zobnina, Campi and Rea2014). A smaller difference in affinity of 0.18 kcal mol−1 can be observed when terbacil is modeled as the ligand, in favor of the susceptible biotype (Table 2). Comparing inhibition constants revealed that 48% (27.38 vs. 18.56 μM) more hexazinone is needed to control the resistant biotype, while a smaller increase, 36% (185.28 vs. 136.85 μM) more terbacil is needed to achieve similar control. This lower difference in concentration values obtained in docking simulations may explain the similar response of both biotypes to terbacil and again indicates susceptibility of the F. filiformis population from lowbush blueberry to this herbicide.

Figure 3. Protein surface visualization of in silico docking of the active ingredients hexazinone (A and B) and terbacil (C and D) to the target protein D1. Protein structure deduced from wild-type allele (phenylalanine, A and C) and resistant allele (isoleucine, B and D). Residue 255 is indicated in pink. Protein deduced from the plastid psbA sequence JX871939.1.

Table 2. Affinity and inhibition constant (Ki) of the active ingredients hexazinone and terbacil to the target D1 protein with and without the Phe-255-Ile amino acid substitution at 25 C as calculated with AutoDock.

A competitive PCR genotyping assay was developed to aid with the diagnosis of hexazinone resistance in F. filiformis. The fact that the gene coding for the targeted protein D1, psbA, is chloroplast encoded and thus maternally inherited facilitates genotyping, as no heterozygous state is expected. Individuals susceptible to hexazinone, when submitted to this assay, will show increased HEX fluorescence, whereas a resistant biotype will have higher FAM fluorescence (Figure 4). Because each dye is associated with a specific allele, an increase in the detection of FAM is indicative of the presence of the resistance allele, and therefore lack of control with hexazinone should be expected, and producers should take different mitigating actions.

Figure 4. Results of the competitive allele-specific PCR (KASP) assay performed on DNA extracted from two negative controls (gray dots) and four susceptible (blue dots) and four resistant (orange dots) individuals. Fluorescence was measured at the end of cycling on an AriaMx (Agilent, Santa Clara, CA, USA).

From a practical standpoint, identification of hexazinone-resistant F. filiformis provides an important warning for a cropping system that currently has no option for tillage or crop rotation as part of a weed management program. Festuca filiformis seeds lack primary dormancy and readily germinate following dispersal in late summer and fall (White Reference White2018). Festuca filiformis seeds can be killed by short-term exposure to temperatures of 200 and 300 C (White and Boyd Reference White and Boyd2016), thus the replacement of burning by flail mowing for pruning (Eaton et al. Reference Eaton, Glen and Wyllie2004; Yarborough Reference Yarborough2004) may be contributing to increased seed survival and dispersal of resistant biotypes. Furthermore, these seeds are common on lowbush blueberry harvesters (Boyd and White Reference Boyd and White2009), and movement of viable, readily germinable seeds on equipment likely leads to the rapid spread of F. filiformis that is commonly observed within and between fields. While a need for improved equipment sanitation procedures is acknowledged (Anonymous 2019), adoption of machinery cleaning as routine practice remains limited, and the spread of new herbicide-resistant biotypes can be expected unless practices change.

In conclusion, an F. filiformis biotype collected from a lowbush blueberry field was 6.1 times more tolerant to hexazinone than a biotype collected from a roadside F. filiformis population. The mutation conferring this resistance was a phenylalanine change to isoleucine at position 255, similar to a mutation reported in a hexazinone-resistant biotype of C. bursa-pastoris. Terbacil susceptibility, however, was similar in both F. filiformis populations, indicating resistance to hexazinone but not terbacil in the F. filiformis population sampled from a lowbush blueberry field. Confirmation of hexazinone resistance in this F. filiformis population may explain recent failure of hexazinone to control this weed and provides the impetus for developing improved cultural practices around the reduction of human-mediated secondary weed seed dispersal in lowbush blueberry production.

Acknowledgments

The authors want to thank Marie Ciotola, Mélanie Cadieux, Carolane Audette, Maxime Gauthier, Pierre-Yves Veronneau, and Sylvain Fortin for their help in performing the dose–response experiments. This work was funded by Agriculture and AgriFood Canada project J-001751. No conflicts of interest have been declared.

Footnotes

Associate Editor: Debalin Sarangi, University of Minnesota

References

Anonymous (2017) Wild Blueberry IPM Weed Management Guide. Wild Blueberry Fact Sheet C.4.2.0. New Brunswick Department of Agriculture, Aquaculture, and Fisheries. 32 pGoogle Scholar
Anonymous (2019) Crop Profile for Lowbush Blueberry in Canada, 2017. 4th ed. Catalogue No. A118-10/31-2017-PDF. AAFC No. 12972E. Ottawa: Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Pest Management Centre. 69 pGoogle Scholar
Beckie, HJ (2006) Herbicide-resistant weeds: management tactics and practices. Weed Technol 20:793814 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beckie, HJ, Tardif, FJ (2012) Herbicide cross resistance in weeds. Crop Prot 35:1528 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boyd, NS, White, S (2009) Impact of wild blueberry harvesters on weed seed dispersal within and between fields. Weed Sci 57:541546 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boyd, NS, White, S, Rao, K (2014) Fertilizer and fluazifop-P inputs for winter bentgrass- (Agrostis hyemalis) infested lowbush blueberry fields. Weed Technol 28:527534 10.1614/WT-D-13-00124.1CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Devine, MD, Eberlein, CV (1997) Physiological, biochemical and molecular aspects of herbicide resistance based on altered target sites. Pages 159185 in Roe, RM, Burton, JD, Kuhr, RJ, eds. Herbicide Activity: Toxicology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. Amsterdam: IOS Press Google Scholar
Doohan, D, Monaco, T, Sheets, T (1992) Effect of field violet (Viola arvensis) growth stage on uptake, translocation, and metabolism of terbacil. Weed Sci 40:180183 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eaton, L, Glen, R, Wyllie, J (2004) Efficient mowing for pruning wild blueberry fields. Small Fruits Rev 3:123131 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hall, IV, Aalders, LE, Nickerson, NL, Vander Kloet, SP (1979) The biological flora of Canada. 1. Vaccinium angustifolium Ait., sweet lowbush blueberry. Can Field-Nat 93:415430 Google Scholar
Hodgson, JM (1970) The response of Canada thistle ecotypes to 2,4-D, amitrole, and intensive cultivation. Weed Sci 18:253255 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holt, J, LeBaron, H (1990) Significance and distribution of herbicide resistance. Weed Technol 4:141149 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holt, J, Powles, S, Holtum, JAM (1993) Mechanisms and agronomic aspects of herbicide resistance. Annu Rev Plant Phys and Plant Mol Biol 44:203229 10.1146/annurev.pp.44.060193.001223CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jensen, K (1985a) Tolerance and residues of hexazinone in lowbush blueberries. Can J Plant Sci 65:223227 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jensen, K (1985b) Weed control in lowbush blueberry in eastern Canada. Acta Hortic 165:259265 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jensen, K, Specht, E (2004) Use of two sulfonyl urea herbicides in lowbush blueberry. Small Fruits Rev 3:257272 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jensen, KIN, Yarborough, DE (2004) An overview of weed management in the wild lowbush blueberry—past and present. Small Fruits Rev 3:229255 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jugulam, M, Shyam, C (2019) Non-target-site resistance to herbicides: recent developments. Plants 8:417. DOI: 10.3390/plants8100417 10.3390/plants8100417CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lambreva, MD, Russo, D, Polticelli, F, Scognamiglio, V, Antonacci, A, Zobnina, V, Campi, G, Rea, G (2014) Structure/function/dynamics of photosystem II plastoquinone binding sites. Cur Protein Pept Sci 15:285295 10.2174/1389203715666140327104802CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Li, Z, Boyd, N, McLean, N, Rutherford, K (2014) Hexazinone resistance in red sorrel (Rumex acetosella). Weed Sci 62:532537 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lyu, H, McLean, N, McKenzie-Gopsill, A, White, SN (2021) Weed survey of Nova Scotia lowbush blueberry (Vaccinium angustifolium Ait.) fields. Int J Fruit Sci 21:359378 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCully, KV, Sampson, MG, Watson, AK (1991) Weed survey of Nova Scotia lowbush blueberry (Vaccinium angustifolium) fields. Weed Sci 39:180185 10.1017/S0043174500071447CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Minogue, P, Zutter, B, Gjerstad, D (1988) Soil factors and efficacy of hexazinone formulations for loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) release. Weed Sci 36:399405 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morris, GM, Huey, R, Lindstrom, W, Sanner, MF, Belew, RK, Goodsell, DS, Olson, AJ (2009) AutoDock4 and AutoDockTools4: automated docking with selective receptor flexibility. J Comput Chem 30:27852791 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murphy, BP, Tranel, PJ (2019) Target-site mutations conferring herbicide resistance. Plants (Basel) 8:382 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nielsen, M, Lundegaard, C, Lund, O, Petersen, TN (2010) CPHmodels-3.0—remote homology modeling using structure-guided sequence profiles. Nucleic Acids Res 38:W576W581 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Norsworthy, JK, Ward, SM, Shaw, DR, Llewellyn, RS, Nichols, RL, Webster, TM, Bradley, KW, Frisvold, G, Powles, SB, Burgos, NR, Witt, WW, Barrett, M (2012) Reducing the risks of herbicide resistance: best management practices and recommendations. Weed Sci 60:3162 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Patton, AJ, Weisenberger, DV, Schortgen, GP (2018) 2,4-D–resistant buckhorn plantain (Plantago lanceolata) in managed turf. Weed Technol 32:182189 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Perez-Jones, A, Intanon, S, Mallory-Smith, C (2009) Molecular analysis of hexazinone-resistant shepherd’s-purse (Capsella bursa-pastoris) reveals a novel psbA mutation. Weed Sci 57:574578 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Powles, SB, Yu, Q (2010) Evolution in action: plants resistant to herbicides. Annu Rev Plant Biol 61:317347 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
R Core Team (2020) R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. Vienna, Austria: R Foundation for Statistical Computing Google Scholar
Ritz, C, Baty, F, Streibig, JC, Gerhard, D (2015) Dose-response analysis using R. PLoS ONE 10:e0146021 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sampson, M, McCully, K, Sampson, D (1990) Weeds of Eastern Canadian Blueberry Fields. Nova Scotia Agricultural College Bookstore: Truro, NS. Pp 213215 Google Scholar
Sanger, F, Nicklen, S, Coulson, AR (1977) DNA sequencing with chain-terminating inhibitors. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 74:54635467 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seefeldt, SS, Jensen, JE, Fuerst, EP (1995) Log-logistic analysis of herbicide dose-response relationships. Weed Technol 9:218227 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smagula, J, Ismail, A (1981) Effects of fertilizer application, preceded by terbacil, on growth, leaf nutrient concentration, and yield of the lowbush blueberry. Can J Plant Sci 61:961964 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
[USDA] U.S. Department of Agriculture (2020) Festuca filiformis Pourr. Fine leaf sheep fescue. http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=FEFI. Accessed: April 16, 2020Google Scholar
Vila-Aiub, MM, Balbi, MC, Distefano, AJ, Fernandez, L, Hopp, E, Yu, Q, Powles, SB (2012) Glyphosate resistance in perennial Sorghum halepense (Johnsongrass), endowed by reduced glyphosate translocation and leaf uptake. Pest Manag Sci 68:430436 10.1002/ps.2286CrossRefGoogle Scholar
White, S (2018) Determination of Festuca filiformis seedbank characteristics, seedling emergence and herbicide susceptibility to aid management in lowbush blueberry (Vaccinium angustifolium). Weed Res 58:112120 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
White, S (2019) Evaluation of herbicides for hair fescue (Festuca filiformis) management and potential seedbank reduction in lowbush blueberry. Weed Technol 33:840846 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
White, S, Boyd, NS (2016) Effect of dry heat, direct flame, and straw burning on seed germination of weed species found in lowbush blueberry fields. Weed Technol 30:263270 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
White, S, Zhang, L (2019) Evaluation of foramsulfuron for poverty oat grass (Danthonia spicata (L.) P. Beauv. Ex Roem. & Shult.) and rough bentgrass (Agrostis scabra Willd.) management in lowbush blueberry (Vaccinium angustifolium Ait.). Can J Plant Sci 99:942954 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
White, SN, Kumar, SK (2017) Potential role of sequential glufosinate and foramsulfuron applications for management of fescues (Festuca spp.) in wild blueberry. Weed Technol 31:100110 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
White, SN, Zhang, L (2020a) Evaluation of terbacil-based herbicide treatments for hair fescue (Festuca filiformis) management in lowbush blueberry. Weed Technology 35:485491 10.1017/wet.2020.123CrossRefGoogle Scholar
White, SN, Zhang, L (2020b) Fall-bearing Year Herbicides and Spring-nonbearing Year Foramsulfuron Applications for Hair Fescue Management in Lowbush Blueberry. HortTechnology 30:670676 10.21273/HORTTECH04677-20CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wishart, D, Arndt, D, Pon, A, Sajed, T, Guo, AC, Djoumbou, Y, Knox, C, Wilson, M, Liang, Y, Grant, J, Liu, Y, Goldansaz, SA, Rappaport, SM (2015) T3DB: the toxic exposome database. Nucleic Acids Res 43:D928D934 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wood, G (2004) The wild blueberry industry—past. Small Fruits Rev 3:1118 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yanniccari, M, Istilart, C, Giménez, DO, Castro, AM (2012) Glyphosate resistance in perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) from Argentina. Crop Prot 32:1216 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yarborough, DE (2004) Factors contributing to the increase in productivity in the wild blueberry industry. Small Fruits Rev 3:3343 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yarborough, DE, Cote, JD (2014) Pre- and post-emergence applications of herbicides for control of resistant fine-leaf sheep fescue in wild blueberry fields in Maine. North American Blueberry Research and Extension Workers Conference, Paper Session I: Blueberry Culture. Atlantic City, NJ, June 24, 2014. DOI: 10.7282/T3DJ5H9G CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yarborough, DE, Jemison, JM (1997) Developing best management practices to reduce hexazinone in ground water in wild blueberry fields. Acta Hortic 446:303308 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhang, L (2017) Management of perennial grasses in wild blueberry (Vaccinium angustifolium) fields. M.Sc dissertation. Halifax, NS, Canada: Dalhousie University. 173 pGoogle Scholar
Zhang, L, White, SN, Randall Olson, A, Pruski, K, Willenborg, C (2018) Evaluation of flazasulfuron for hair fescue (Festuca filiformis) suppression and wild blueberry (Vaccinium angustifolium Ait.) tolerance. Can J Plant Sci 98:12931303 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Figure 0

Figure 1. Effect of hexazinone (top) and terbacil (bottom) dose on dry biomass of suspected resistant (red) and susceptible (blue) Festuca filiformis biotypes. Lines are the predicted dry biomass obtained from a log-logistic dose–response equation of the form Y = C + {(DC)/[1 + (x/GR50)b]}, where C is the lower asymptote, D is the upper asymptote, b is the slope of the line at GR50, and GR50 is the herbicide dose generating a 50% reduction in dry biomass (Seefeldt et al. 1995) as calculated with the drc package in R (Ritz et al. 2015).

Figure 1

Table 1. Regression parameters of a four-parameter logistic dose–response equation explaining the relationship between herbicide dose (g ai ha−1) and Festuca filiformis dry weight at 21 d after treatment (DAT) with hexazinone or terbacil.a

Figure 2

Figure 2. Partial Festuca filiformis psbA sequence at the Phe-255-Ile locus. Comparison between the susceptible allele (top sequence) and the resistant allele (bottom sequence). The sequence TTT coding for phenylalanine is found in the wild-type sequence from F. filiformis, while the sequence ATT coding for isoleucine is found in the mutant allele conferring hexazinone resistance in F. filiformis.

Figure 3

Figure 3. Protein surface visualization of in silico docking of the active ingredients hexazinone (A and B) and terbacil (C and D) to the target protein D1. Protein structure deduced from wild-type allele (phenylalanine, A and C) and resistant allele (isoleucine, B and D). Residue 255 is indicated in pink. Protein deduced from the plastid psbA sequence JX871939.1.

Figure 4

Table 2. Affinity and inhibition constant (Ki) of the active ingredients hexazinone and terbacil to the target D1 protein with and without the Phe-255-Ile amino acid substitution at 25 C as calculated with AutoDock.

Figure 5

Figure 4. Results of the competitive allele-specific PCR (KASP) assay performed on DNA extracted from two negative controls (gray dots) and four susceptible (blue dots) and four resistant (orange dots) individuals. Fluorescence was measured at the end of cycling on an AriaMx (Agilent, Santa Clara, CA, USA).