Hostname: page-component-7c8c6479df-ws8qp Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-03-28T19:08:55.065Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Highlights for this issue

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 December 2018

Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Type
Highlights of this issue
Copyright
Copyright © The Royal College of Psychiatrists 2018 

Treatment-resistant mood disorders: towards better understanding and treatment

Mood disorders largely comprise major depressive disorder (MDD) and bipolar disorder, with treatment-resistant forms of both being common. MDD is a highly prevalent and frequently disabling illness, which requires adequate detection followed by effective treatment to reduce symptoms and improve quality of life.Reference Kessler, Berglund, Demler, Jin, Koretz and Merikangas1 Although psychological treatment approaches are commonly employed, all extant national and international clinical guidelines recommend the use of antidepressant medication for the treatment of moderate to severe MDD. However, perhaps as many as 50% of patients fail to obtain an optimal outcome after both first- and second-line treatments; although definitions vary, these individuals are commonly described as suffering from treatment-resistant depression (TRD).Reference Trevino, McClintock, McDonald Fischer, Vora and Husain2 TRD is a common problem and, compared with MDD in general, is associated with a generally poorer prognosis, higher mortality and higher healthcare utilisation costs.Reference Olchanski, McInnis Myers, Halseth, Cyr, Bockstedt and Goss3 Many patients with depression are undertreated,Reference McIntyre, Filteau, Martin, Patry, Carvalho and Cha4 but adequate treatment of TRD has been shown to improve the individual's prognosis,Reference Wooderson, Fekadu, Markopoulou, Rane, Poon and Juruena5 highlighting the importance of appropriate therapy for this condition.

Treatment algorithms for patients with TRD include the options of increasing the dose of the antidepressant which the patient is taking, switching to another antidepressant, or augmenting the first antidepressant with a second agent.Reference Cleare, Pariante, Young, Anderson, Christmas and Cowen6 Increasing the dose of medication may be associated with a statistically significantly increase in efficacy for some antidepressants, but not for many.Reference Rink, Braun, Bschor, Henssler, Franklin and Baethge7 Switching to an alternative antidepressant is recommended in cases where a patient has either made no response or is not tolerating their current drug.Reference Cleare, Pariante, Young, Anderson, Christmas and Cowen6 However, large-scale studies have shown that remission rates for third- or fourth-line antidepressant treatments are in the order of just 10–15%.Reference Dunner, Rush, Russell, Burke, Woodard and Wingard8 For patients with TRD, where there is a partial response to the antidepressant they are currently receiving, augmentation with another pharmacological agent is recommended.Reference Cleare, Pariante, Young, Anderson, Christmas and Cowen6

The efficacy of combinations of multiple antidepressants has been brought into question by the largest clinical trial that examined this, which showed antidepressant monotherapy to be as effective as antidepressant combinations,Reference Rush, Trivedi, Stewart, Nierenberg, Fava and Kurian9 although there is meta-analytic evidence to support some other particular antidepressant combinations.Reference Henssler, Bschor and Baethge10 However, the efficacy of lithium augmentation of antidepressants is supported by robust evidence, which has been confirmed in a methodologically rigorous meta-analysis.Reference Bauer, Adli, Ricken, Severus and Pilhatsch11 This meta-analysis examined the efficacy of lithium in ten randomised controlled trials and found that lithium augmentation had significant benefits compared with placebo, with an odds ratio of 3.11 corresponding to a number needed to treat of 5 and a mean response rate of 41.2% (versus 14.4% in the placebo group). Recent guidanceReference Bauer, Severus, Möller and Young12 has emphasised that add-on alternative treatments are a standard treatment pathway for TRD. The first-line options include lithium and the atypical antipsychotic quetiapine. For example, lithium was recommended as the first-choice add-on treatment for treating patients with TRD by the World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry Task Force,Reference Bauer, Pfennig, Severus, Whybrow, Angst and Möller13 and lithium augmentation of antidepressants is a first-line treatment option recommended by both the National Institute of Health and Care Excellence (NICE) and the current British Association for Psychopharmacology (BAP) guidelines for treating depression non-responsive to antidepressants.Reference Cleare, Pariante, Young, Anderson, Christmas and Cowen6 It should also be noted that although lithium has been most often associated with the treatment of bipolar disorder, it has a good evidence base showing clear-cut benefits to the patient when used in unipolar depression.Reference Young14

Bipolar disorder has a lifetime prevalence of 2.5%Reference Clemente, Diniz, Nicolato, Kapczinski, Soares and Firmo15 and is associated with an 8–12-year reduction in life expectancy.Reference Kessing, Vradi and Andersen16 Patients with bipolar disorder are symptomatic around 50% of the time, the vast majority of which involves depression.Reference Judd, Akiskal, Schettler, Coryell, Endicott and Maser17, Reference Judd, Akiskal, Schettler, Endicott, Maser and Solomon18 There are three agents whose evidence base has led to their recommendation by NICE for the treatment of bipolar depression: namely, lamotrigine, quetiapine and olanzapine (with or without fluoxetine).19 The value of these drugs is reduced by the need for slow upward dose titration (lamotrigine), or by metabolic side-effects and sedation (quetiapine and olanzapine).Reference Calabrese, Keck, Macfadden, Minkwitz, Ketter and Weisler20, Reference Tohen, Vieta, Calabrese, Ketter, Sachs and Bowden21 The evidence of efficacy for a fourth agent, lurasidone, has been made available after publication of the NICE guidance.Reference Loebel, Cucchiaro, Silva, Kroger, Hsu and Sarma22, Reference Loebel, Cucchiaro, Silva, Kroger, Sarma and Xu23 There is an absence of convincing evidence of efficacy for standard antidepressants in bipolar depression; despite this, around 70% of currently depressed bipolar patients in the UK are on at least one antidepressant.24

Cognitive therapy and early warning sign identification (and other aspects of psychoeducation), delivered to those at risk or during remission, have been shown by someReference Brent, Brunwasser, Hollon, Weersing, Clarke and Dickerson25Reference Miklowitz29 but not allReference Lobban, Gamble, Kinderman, Taylor, Chandler and Tyler30Reference Perry, Tarrier, Morriss, McCarthy and Limb32 studies to reduce the likelihood of the development of depression. During bipolar depression, the benefit of psychological treatments is greater in those earlier in their illness histories, with a shorter duration of current episode and fewer previous episodes.Reference Peters, Sylvia, Magalhaes, Miklowitz, Frank and Otto33, Reference Scott, Paykel, Morriss, Bentall, Kinderman and Johnson34 Nonetheless, overall, the Systematic Treatment Enhancement Program for Bipolar Disorder data suggest the value in bipolar depression of augmenting pharmacological treatments with cognitive therapy and other intensive psychotherapies.Reference Miklowitz, Otto, Frank, Reilly-Harrington, Wisniewski and Kogan35

There is not an established consensus definition for TRD in people with bipolar disorder; however, it has been shown that around 50% of patients remain depressed at six months, and 30% at a year, because of treatment non-response, intolerance or non-adherence.Reference Kupfer, Frank, Grochocinski, Luther, Houck and Swartz36 Therefore, with respect to bipolar disorder, TRD is a major contributor to the burden of disease, including estimated annual UK costs of £5.2 billion, with direct National Health Service costs of £342 million at 2010 prices.Reference McCrone, Dhanasiri, Patel, Knapp and Lawton-Smith37, Reference Young, Rigney, Shaw, Emmas and Thompson38 There are also all the costs, personal and financial, associated with a greater suicide risk.Reference Clements, Morriss, Jones, Peters, Roberts and Kapur39, Reference Hawton, Sutton, Haw, Sinclair and Harriss40 Current developments in the treatment of resistant bipolar depression, such as pramipexole, ketamine and vagal nerve stimulation, are therefore particularly welcomed.

As this special edition illustrates, there is a range of possible approaches to understanding and treating TRD. A number of ‘high-tech’ strategies including ‘multi-omics’, neuroimaging and ‘big data’ are being applied to answer this challenge. Multi-omics offers the opportunity to understand the flow of information that underlies disease – a great unmet need in psychiatry.Reference Hasin, Seldin and Lusis41 Various neuroimaging approaches are already paying dividends in understanding mood disorders,Reference Wise, Marwood, Perkins, Herane-Vives, Williams, Young, Cleare and Arnone42 and big data is being applied to depression.Reference Eichstaedt, Smith, Merchant, Ungar, Crutchley, Preoţiuc-Pietro, Asch and Schwartz43 However, it is also important to remember the ‘basics’ and revisit the diagnosis by comprehensively assessing any contributing factors, as well as noting which approaches have been tried and their relative success or failure. For instance, alcohol use disorders are among the most common comorbidities of depression or bipolar disorder, and the risk of depression or bipolar disorder is heightened in those with an alcohol use disorder.Reference Boden and Fergusson44, Reference Di Florio, Craddock and van den Bree45 However, routine screening for alcohol or other drug use, or adequate assessment when there may be a problem, generally remains woefully lacking. In bipolar disorder, comorbid alcohol use disorder is associated with a delay in diagnosis of bipolar disorder and the likelihood of greater morbidity.Reference Patel, Shetty, Jackson, Broadbent, Stewart and Boydell46 From a specialist addiction service perspective, it is not uncommon for referred individuals to have ‘tried’ several different antidepressants without much improvement in their mood. Then, their excessive drinking comes to light, resulting in a switch of focus. Despite their widespread use, there is considerable evidence that antidepressants do not substantially improve mood or alcohol consumption in those with alcoholism, or with alcohol use disorder and depression.Reference Lingford-Hughes, Welch, Peters and Nutt47, Reference Agabio, Trogu and Pani48 Indeed, there is some evidence that selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors in non-depressed patients with alcoholism can make alcohol outcomes worse and not improve mood.Reference Lingford-Hughes, Welch, Peters and Nutt47 Furthermore, it is well known that depressive and anxiety symptoms improve within days to weeks when someone stops drinking alcohol, so support to achieve this should be a priority and not ignored or overcome by nihilism.

In this special edition, an operational definition of treatment resistance and multi-therapy resistance in bipolar depression is proposed (Stokes pp. 27–35). There may not be widespread consensus on this, yet the argument is convincingly made that the way that we conceptualise TRD needs to be rethought and made more robust (Mahli pp. 1–3). Both the genetic aetiology (Fabbri pp. 36–41) and inflammatory pathophysiology (Chamberlain pp. 11–19) are examined, and treatment is considered from three angles: the prognostic significance of early treatment response (de Vries pp. 4–10), a meta-analysis of established augmentation strategies (Strawbridge pp. 42–51) and an evaluation of whether the short-term benefits of ketamine can be sustained via oral ambulatory therapy (Domany pp. 20–26). Together, these papers challenge and enlighten, providing a powerful argument against the hopelessness that too often afflicts patients and practitioners alike. Treatment-resistant mood disorders are among the leading challenges for clinical psychiatry today. We hope these papers suggest future prospects for better understanding and treatment.

References

1Kessler, R, Berglund, P, Demler, O, Jin, R, Koretz, D, Merikangas, K, et al. National comorbidity survey replication. J Am Med Assoc 2003; 289(23): 3095–105.Google Scholar
2Trevino, K, McClintock, S, McDonald Fischer, N, Vora, A, Husain, M. Defining treatment-resistant depression: a comprehensive review of the literature. Ann Clin Psychiatry 2014; 26(3): 222–32.Google Scholar
3Olchanski, N, McInnis Myers, M, Halseth, M, Cyr, PL, Bockstedt, L, Goss, TF, et al. The economic burden of treatment-resistant depression. Clin Ther 2013; 35(4): 512–22.Google Scholar
4McIntyre, RS, Filteau, M-J, Martin, L, Patry, S, Carvalho, A, Cha, DS, et al. Treatment-resistant depression: definitions, review of the evidence, and algorithmic approach. J Affect Disord 2014; 156: 17.Google Scholar
5Wooderson, SC, Fekadu, A, Markopoulou, K, Rane, LJ, Poon, L, Juruena, MF, et al. Long-term symptomatic and functional outcome following an intensive inpatient multidisciplinary intervention for treatment-resistant affective disorders. J Affect Disord 2014; 166: 334–42.Google Scholar
6Cleare, A, Pariante, C, Young, A, Anderson, I, Christmas, D, Cowen, P, et al. Evidence-based guidelines for treating depressive disorders with antidepressants: a revision of the 2008 British Association for Psychopharmacology guidelines. J Psychopharmacol 2015; 29(5): 459525.Google Scholar
7Rink, L, Braun, C, Bschor, T, Henssler, J, Franklin, J, Baethge, C. Dose increase versus unchanged continuation of antidepressants after initial antidepressant treatment failure in patients with major depressive disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized, double-blind trials. J Clin Psychiatry 2018; 79(3): 17r11693.Google Scholar
8Dunner, D, Rush, A, Russell, J, Burke, M, Woodard, S, Wingard, P, et al. Prospective, long-term, multi-center study of the naturalistic outcomes of patients with treatment-resistant depression. J Clin Psychiatry 2006; 67(5): 688–95.Google Scholar
9Rush, AJ, Trivedi, MH, Stewart, JW, Nierenberg, AA, Fava, M, Kurian, BT, et al. Combining medications to enhance depression outcomes (CO-MED): acute and long-term outcomes of a single-blind randomized study. Am J Psychiatry 2011; 168(7): 689701.Google Scholar
10Henssler, J, Bschor, T, Baethge, C. Combining antidepressants in acute treatment of depression: a meta-analysis of 38 studies including 4511 patients. Can J Psychiatry 2016; 61(1): 2943.Google Scholar
11Bauer, M, Adli, M, Ricken, R, Severus, E, Pilhatsch, M. Role of lithium augmentation in the management of major depressive disorder. CNS Drugs 2014; 28(4): 331–42.Google Scholar
12Bauer, M, Severus, E, Möller, H-J, Young, AH. Pharmacological treatment of unipolar depressive disorders: summary of WFSBP guidelines. Int J Psychiatry Clin Pract 2017; 21(3): 166–76.Google Scholar
13Bauer, M, Pfennig, A, Severus, E, Whybrow, PC, Angst, J, Möller, H-J. World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry (WFSBP) Guidelines for Biological Treatment of Unipolar Depressive Disorders, Part 1: update 2013 on the acute and continuation treatment of unipolar depressive disorders. World J Biol Psychiatry 2013; 14(5): 334–85.Google Scholar
14Young, AH. Lithium for long-term treatment of unipolar depression. Lancet Psychiatry 2017; 4(7): 511–2.Google Scholar
15Clemente, AS, Diniz, BS, Nicolato, R, Kapczinski, FP, Soares, JC, Firmo, JO, et al. Bipolar disorder prevalence: a systematic review and meta-analysis of the literature. Rev Bras Psiquiatr 2015; 37(2): 155–61.Google Scholar
16Kessing, LV, Vradi, E, Andersen, PK. Life expectancy in bipolar disorder. Bipolar Disord 2015; 17(5): 543–8.Google Scholar
17Judd, LL, Akiskal, HS, Schettler, PJ, Coryell, W, Endicott, J, Maser, JD, et al. A prospective investigation of the natural history of the long-term weekly symptomatic status of bipolar II disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2003; 60: 261–9.Google Scholar
18Judd, LL, Akiskal, HS, Schettler, PJ, Endicott, J, Maser, J, Solomon, DA, et al. The long-term natural history of the weekly symptomatic status of bipolar I disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2002; 59: 530–7.Google Scholar
19National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Bipolar Disorder: Assessment and Management. CG185. NICE, 2014.Google Scholar
20Calabrese, JR, Keck, PE Jr., Macfadden, W, Minkwitz, M, Ketter, TA, Weisler, RH, et al. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of quetiapine in the treatment of bipolar I or II depression. Am J Psychiatry 2005; 162(7): 1351–60.Google Scholar
21Tohen, M, Vieta, E, Calabrese, J, Ketter, TA, Sachs, G, Bowden, C, et al. Efficacy of olanzapine and olanzapine-fluoxetine combination in the treatment of bipolar I depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2003; 60(11): 1079–88.Google Scholar
22Loebel, A, Cucchiaro, J, Silva, R, Kroger, H, Hsu, J, Sarma, K, et al. Lurasidone monotherapy in the treatment of bipolar I depression: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Am J Psychiatry 2014; 171(2): 160–8.Google Scholar
23Loebel, A, Cucchiaro, J, Silva, R, Kroger, H, Sarma, K, Xu, J, et al. Lurasidone as adjunctive therapy with lithium or valproate for the treatment of bipolar I depression: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Am J Psychiatry 2014; 171(2): 169–77.Google Scholar
24POMH-UK. Topic 15a Baseline Audit Report. Prescribing Valproate for Bipolar Disorder (CCQI222). 2016Google Scholar
25Brent, DA, Brunwasser, SM, Hollon, SD, Weersing, VR, Clarke, GN, Dickerson, JF, et al. Effect of a cognitive-behavioral prevention program on depression 6 years after implementation among at-risk adolescents: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry 2015; 72(11): 1110–8.Google Scholar
26Colom, F. 5 Year Efficacy of Group Psychoeducation. Barcelona: 5th European Stanley Conference on Bipolar Disorder, 2006.Google Scholar
27Lam, DH, Hayward, P, Watkins, ER, Wright, K, Sham, P. Relapse prevention in patients with bipolar disorder: cognitive therapy outcome after 2 years. Am J Psychiatry 2005; 162(2): 324–9.Google Scholar
28Kessing, LV, Hansen, HV, Hvenegaard, A, Christensen, EM, Dam, H, Gluud, C, et al. Treatment in a specialised out-patient mood disorder clinic v. standard out-patient treatment in the early course of bipolar disorder: randomised clinical trial. Br J Psychiatry 2013; 202(3): 212–9.Google Scholar
29Miklowitz, DJ. Adjunctive psychotherapy for bipolar disorder: state of the evidence. Am J Psychiatry 2008; 165(11): 1408–19.Google Scholar
30Lobban, F, Gamble, C, Kinderman, P, Taylor, L, Chandler, C, Tyler, E, et al. Enhanced relapse prevention for bipolar disorder–ERP trial. A cluster randomised controlled trial to assess the feasibility of training care coordinators to offer enhanced relapse prevention for bipolar disorder. BMC Psychiatry 2007; 7: 6.Google Scholar
31Morriss, R, Lobban, F, Riste, L, Davies, L, Holland, F, Long, R, et al. Clinical effectiveness and acceptability of structured group psychoeducation versus optimised unstructured peer support for patients with remitted bipolar disorder (PARADES): a pragmatic, multicentre, observer-blind, randomised controlled superiority trial. Lancet Psychiatry 2016; 3(11): 1029–38.Google Scholar
32Perry, A, Tarrier, N, Morriss, R, McCarthy, E, Limb, K. Randomised controlled trial of efficacy of teaching patients with bipolar disorder to identify early symptoms of relapse and obtain treatment. BMJ 1999; 318(7177): 149–53.Google Scholar
33Peters, A, Sylvia, LG, Magalhaes, PV, Miklowitz, DJ, Frank, E, Otto, MW, et al. Age at onset, course of illness and response to psychotherapy in bipolar disorder: results from the Systematic Treatment Enhancement Program for Bipolar Disorder (STEP-BD). Psychol Med 2014; 44(16): 3455–67.Google Scholar
34Scott, J, Paykel, E, Morriss, R, Bentall, R, Kinderman, P, Johnson, T, et al. Cognitive-behavioural therapy for severe and recurrent bipolar disorders: randomised controlled trial. Br J Psychiatry 2006; 188: 313–20.Google Scholar
35Miklowitz, DJ, Otto, MW, Frank, E, Reilly-Harrington, NA, Wisniewski, SR, Kogan, JN, et al. Psychosocial treatments for bipolar depression: a 1-year randomized trial from the Systematic Treatment Enhancement Program. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2007; 64(4): 419–26.Google Scholar
36Kupfer, DJ, Frank, E, Grochocinski, VJ, Luther, JF, Houck, PR, Swartz, HA, et al. Stabilization in the treatment of mania, depression and mixed states. Acta Neuropsychiatr 2000; 12(3): 110–4.Google Scholar
37McCrone, P, Dhanasiri, S, Patel, A, Knapp, M, Lawton-Smith, S. Paying the Price: The Cost of Mental Health Care in England to 2026. The King's Fund, 2008.Google Scholar
38Young, AH, Rigney, U, Shaw, S, Emmas, C, Thompson, JM. Annual cost of managing bipolar disorder to the UK healthcare system. J Affect Disord 2011; 133(3): 450–6.Google Scholar
39Clements, C, Morriss, R, Jones, S, Peters, S, Roberts, C, Kapur, N. Suicide in bipolar disorder in a national English sample, 1996–2009: frequency, trends and characteristics. Psychol Med 2013; 43(12): 2593–602.Google Scholar
40Hawton, K, Sutton, L, Haw, C, Sinclair, J, Harriss, L. Suicide and attempted suicide in bipolar disorder: a systematic review of risk factors. J Clin Psychiatry 2005; 66(6): 693704.Google Scholar
41Hasin, Y, Seldin, M, Lusis, A. Multi-omics approaches to disease. Genome Biol 2017; 18(1): 83.Google Scholar
42Wise, TMarwood, L, Perkins, AM, Herane-Vives, A, Williams, SCR, Young, AH, Cleare, AJ, Arnone, D. A morphometric signature of depressive symptoms in unmedicated patients with mood disorders. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2018; 138(1): 7382.Google Scholar
43Eichstaedt, JC, Smith, RJ, Merchant, RM, Ungar, LH, Crutchley, P, Preoţiuc-Pietro, D, Asch, DA, Schwartz, HA. Facebook language predicts depression in medical records. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2018; doi: 10.1073/pnas.1802331115.Google Scholar
44Boden, JM, Fergusson, DM. Alcohol and depression. Addiction 2011; 106(5): 906–14.Google Scholar
45Di Florio, A, Craddock, N, van den Bree, M. Alcohol misuse in bipolar disorder. A systematic review and meta-analysis of comorbidity rates. Eur Psychiatry 2014; 29(3): 117–24.Google Scholar
46Patel, S, Shetty, H, Jackson, R, Broadbent, M, Stewart, R, Boydell, J, et al. Delays before diagnosis and initiation of treatment in patients presentating to mental health services with bipolar disorder. PLoS ONE 2015; 10(5): e0126530.Google Scholar
47Lingford-Hughes, A, Welch, S, Peters, L, Nutt, D, British Association for Psychopharmacology ERG. BAP updated guidelines: evidence-based guidelines for the pharmacological management of substance abuse, harmful use, addiction and comorbidity: recommendations from BAP. J Psychopharmacology 2012; 26(7): 899952.Google Scholar
48Agabio, R, Trogu, E, Pani, PP. Antidepressants for the treatment of people with co-occurring depression and alcohol dependence. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2018; 4: CD008581.Google Scholar
Submit a response

eLetters

No eLetters have been published for this article.