Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-mp689 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-25T05:24:39.272Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The crypsis hypothesis: a stenopic view of the selective factors in the evolution of physical dormancy in seeds

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  27 March 2015

K.M.G. Gehan Jayasuriya ,
Yasoja S. Athugala ,
Malaka M. Wijayasinghe ,
Jerry M. Baskin ,
Carol C. Baskin  and
Niranjan Mahadevan
K.M.G. Gehan Jayasuriya*
Affiliation:
Department of Botany, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka Postgraduate Institute of Science, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
Yasoja S. Athugala
Affiliation:
Department of Botany, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka Postgraduate Institute of Science, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
Malaka M. Wijayasinghe
Affiliation:
Department of Botany, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka Postgraduate Institute of Science, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
Jerry M. Baskin
Affiliation:
Department of Biology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
Carol C. Baskin
Affiliation:
Department of Biology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
Niranjan Mahadevan
Affiliation:
Department of Botany, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
*
*Correspondence E-mail: gejaya@gmail.com
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Physical dormancy (PY) in seeds/fruits, which is caused by the water-impermeable palisade layer, has long been considered a mechanism for synchronizing germination to a favourable time for seedling survival and establishment. Recently, a new hypothesis (crypsis hypothesis) was proposed as the main selective factor for the evolution of PY. However, there are some misconceptions in this hypothesis. Our objective is to critically evaluate the crypsis hypothesis and to point out that there are multiple adaptive roles of PY. The fundamental argument in the crypsis hypothesis, that PY evolved as an escape mechanism from predators, is not valid according to the evolutionary theory of Darwin. According to Darwin's hypothesis, variations (dormancy in our case) within a population occur randomly, i.e. there is no direct function of a variation at the time of its origin. Different selection pressures operating in the environment increase or decrease the fitness of individuals with the variation. Water-gap anatomy in seeds/fruits and phylogenetic relationships of species with PY suggest that PY has evolved several times in angiosperms. Thus, we argue that not only predatory pressure but also several other environmental pressures (e.g. proper timing of germination, ultra-drying of seeds, dispersal and pathogens) were involved in increasing the fitness of species producing seeds with PY. The significance of PY in the survival of the species under the above-mentioned environmental pressures and other misconceptions of the crypsis hypothesis are discussed in detail.

Keywords

crypsis hypothesis for evolution of physical dormancyfire and physical dormancy breakseed dispersalseed longevityseed predationsensitivity cycling
Type
Research Opinion
Information
Seed Science Research , Volume 25 , Special Issue 2: Seed Dormancy , June 2015 , pp. 127 - 137
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2015 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abrams, M.D. and Dickmann, D.I. (1982) Apparent heat stimulation of buried seeds of Geranium bicknellii on jack pine sites in northern lower Michigan. Michigan Botanist 23, 81–88.Google Scholar
Ahlgren, I.F. and Ahlgren, C.E. (1960) Ecological effects of forest fires. The Botanical Review 26, 483–533.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baeza, M.J. and Roy, J. (2008) Germination of an obligate seeder (Ulex parviflorus) and consequences for wildfire management. Forest Ecology and Management 256, 685–693.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baskin, C.C. (2003) Breaking physical dormancy in seeds – focusing on the lens. New Phytologist 158, 229–231.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baskin, C.C. and Baskin, J.M. (1998) Seeds: Ecology, biogeography and evolution of dormancy and germination. San Diego, Academic Press.Google Scholar
Baskin, C.C. and Baskin, J.M. (2008) Advances in understanding seed dormancy at the whole-seed level: an ecological, biogeographical and phylogenetic perspective. Acta Botanica Yunnanica 30, 279–294.Google Scholar
Baskin, C.C. and Baskin, J.M. (2014a) Seeds: Ecology, biogeography and evolution of dormancy and germination (2nd edition). San Diego, Elsevier/Academic Press.Google Scholar
Baskin, J.M. and Baskin, C.C. (1985) The annual dormancy cycle in buried weed seeds: a continuum. BioScience 35, 492–498.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baskin, J.M. and Baskin, C.C. (1997) Methods of breaking seed dormancy in the endangered species Iliamna corei (Sherff) Sherff (Malvaceae), with special attention to heating. Natural Areas Journal 17, 313–323.Google Scholar
Baskin, J.M. and Baskin, C.C. (2000) Evolutionary considerations of claims for physical dormancy-break by microbial action and abrasion by soil particles. Seed Science Research 10, 409–413.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baskin, J.M. and Baskin, C.C. (2004) A classification system for seed dormancy. Seed Science Research 14, 1–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baskin, J.M. and Baskin, C.C. (2014b) What kind of seed dormancy might palms have? Seed Science Research 24, 17–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baskin, J.M., Baskin, C.C. and Li, X. (2000) Taxonomy, anatomy and evolution of physical dormancy in seeds. Plant Species Biology 15, 139–152.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benvenuti, S., Dinelli, G., Bonetti, A. and Catizone, P. (2005) Germination ecology, emergence and host detection in Cuscuta campestris . Weed Research 45, 270–278.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bolin, J.F. (2009) Heat shock germination responses of three eastern North American temperate species. Castanea 74, 160–167.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bond, W.J. and Keeley, J.E. (2005) Fire as a global ‘herbivore’: the ecology of flammable ecosystems. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 20, 387–394.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Borchert, M. (1989) Post fire demography of Thermopsis macrophylla H. & A. var. angina J.T. Howell (Fabaceae), a rare perennial herb in chaparral. The American Midland Naturalist 122, 120–132.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bradshaw, S.D., Dixon, K.W., Hopper, S.D., Lambers, H. and Turner, S.R. (2011) Little evidence for fire-adapted plant traits in Mediterranean climate regions. Trends in Plant Science 16, 69–76.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Campos, C.M., Peco, B., Campos, V.E., Malo, J.E., Giannoni, S.M. and Suarez, F. (2008) Endozoochory by native and exotic herbivores in dry areas: consequences for germination and survival of Prosopis seeds. Seed Science Research 18, 91–100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cardina, J. and Sparrow, D.H. (1997) Temporal changes in velvetleaf (Albutilon theophrasti) seed dormancy. Weed Science 45, 61–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chambers, J.C. (1995) Relationships between seed fates and seedling establishment in an alpine ecosystem. Ecology 76, 2124–2133.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Christensen, C.M. (1957) Deterioration of stored grains by fungi. The Botanical Review 23, 108–144.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Colville, L., Bradley, E.L., Lloyd, A.S., Pritchard, H.W., Castle, L. and Kranner, I. (2012) Volatile fingerprints of seeds of four species indicate the involvement of alcoholic fermentation, lipid peroxidation, and Maillard reactions in seed deterioration during ageing and desiccation stress. Journal of Experimental Botany 63, 6519–6530.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Courtney, A.D. (1968) Seed dormancy and field emergence in Polygonum aviculare L. Journal of Applied Ecology 5, 675–684.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crocker, W. (1916) Mechanics of dormancy in seeds. American Journal of Botany 3, 99–120.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cushwa, C.T., Martin, R.E. and Miller, R.L. (1968) The effects of fire on seed germination. Journal of Range Management 21, 250–254.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dalling, J.W., Davis, A.S., Schutte, B.J. and Arnold, A.E. (2011) Seed survival in soil: interacting effects of predation, dormancy and the soil microbial community. Journal of Ecology 99, 89–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Darlington, H.T. and Steinbauer, G.P. (1961) The eighty-year period for Dr. Beal's seed viability experiment. American Journal of Botany 48, 321–325.Google Scholar
Darwin, C. (1859) On the origin of species. London, John Murray.Google Scholar
Dawkins, R. (1976) The selfish gene. Oxford, Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Dell, B. (1980) Structure and function of the strophiolar plug in seeds of Albizia lophantha . American Journal of Botany 67, 556–563.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Paula, A.S., Delgado, C.M.L., Paulilo, M.T.S. and Santos, M. (2012) Breaking physical dormancy of Cassia leptophylla and Senna macranthera (Fabaceae: Caesalpinioideae) seed: water absorption and alternating temperature. Seed Science Research 22, 259–267.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eshel, I. (1983) Evolutionary and continuous stability. Journal of Theoretical Biology 103, 99–111.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Finch-Savage, W.E. and Leubner-Metzger, G. (2006) Seed dormancy and the control of germination. New Phytologist 171, 501–523.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Floyd, A.G. (1966) Effect of fire upon weed seeds in the wet sclerophyll forests of northern New South Wales. Australian Journal of Botany 14, 243–256.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Footitt, S., Douterelo-Soler, I., Clay, H. and Finch-Savage, W.E. (2011) Dormancy cycling in Arabidopsis seeds is controlled by seasonally distinct hormone-signaling pathways. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 108, 20236–20241.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gama-Arachchige, N.S. (2013) Physical dormancy in seeds, with special reference to Geraniaceae: morpho-anatomy, development, physiology, biomechanics and classification of water-gap complexes. Doctoral dissertation, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA.Google Scholar
Gama-Arachchige, N.S., Baskin, J.M., Geneve, R.L. and Baskin, C.C. (2012) The autumn effect: timing of physical dormancy break in seeds of two winter annual species of Geraniaceae by a stepwise process. Annals of Botany 110, 637–651.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gama-Arachchige, N.S., Baskin, J.M., Geneve, R.L. and Baskin, C.C. (2013) Identification and characterization of ten new water gaps in seeds and fruits with physical dormancy and classification of water-gap complexes. Annals of Botany 112, 69–84.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gillispie, C.C. (1958) Lamarck and Darwin in the history of science. American Scientist 46, 388–409.Google Scholar
Glyphis, J.P., Milton, S.J. and Siegfried, W.R. (1981) Dispersal of Acacia cyclops by birds. Oecologia 48, 138–141.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gonzalez-Rabanal, F. and Casal, M. (1995) Effect of high temperatures and ash on germination of ten species from gorse shrubland. Vegetatio 116, 123–131.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Griffith, A.B. and Forseth, I.N. (2002) Primary and secondary seed dispersal of a rare, tidal wetland annual, Aeschynomene virginica . Wetlands 22, 696–704.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guja, L.K., Merritt, D.J. and Dixon, K.W. (2010) Buoyancy, salt tolerance and germination of coastal seeds: implications for oceanic hydrochorous dispersal. Functional Plant Biology 37, 1175–1186.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hadley, E.B. (1961) Influence of temperature and other factors on Ceanothus megacarpus seed germination. Madrono 16, 132–138.Google Scholar
Hammerstein, P. (1996) Darwinian adaptation, population genetics and the streetcar theory of evolution. Journal of Mathematical Biology 34, 511–532.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hammerstein, P. and Selten, R. (1994) Game theory and evolutionary biology. pp. 929–993 in Aumann, R.J.; Hart, S. (Eds) Hand book of game theory with economic applications. New York, Elsevier Science.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harper, J.L. (1957) The ecological significance of dormancy and its importance in weed control. pp. 415–420 in Proceedings of the 4th International Congress of Crop Protection, Hamburg, Germany.Google Scholar
Harper, J.L. (1977) Population biology of plants. London, Academic Press.Google Scholar
Hecht, A. (2008) Peters Mountain Mallow (Iliamna corei Sherff), 5 year review: summary and evaluation. Gloucester, Virginia, USA, US Fish and Wildlife Service.Google Scholar
Herranz, J.M., Ferrandis, P. and Martinez-Sanchez, J.J. (1998) Influence of heat on seed germination of seven Mediterranean Leguminosae species. Plant Ecology 136, 95–103.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hilhorst, H.W.M. (2011) Standardizing seed dormancy research. pp. 43–52 in Kermode, A.R. (Ed.) Seed dormancy: methods and protocols. New York, Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hill, R.A. and Lacey, J. (1983) Factors determining the microflora of stored barley grain. Annals of Applied Biology 102, 467–483.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Izhaki, I., Korine, C. and Arad, Z. (1995) The effect of bats (Rousettus aegyptiacus) dispersal on seed germination in eastern Mediterranean habitats. Oecologia 101, 335–342.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jani, M.G.S. and Jayasuriya, K.M.G.G. (2013) Seed dormancy in relation to predation and pathogenicity with special reference to seed physical dormancy. p. 249 in Book of Abstracts of the Peradeniya University Research Sessions 2012, July 2013 , Peradeniya, Sri Lanka.Google Scholar
Janzen, D. (1981) Enterolobium cyclocarpum seed passage rate and survival in horses, Costa Rican Pleistocene seed dispersal agents. Ecology 62, 593–601.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Janzen, D.H., Demment, M.W. and Robertson, J.B. (1985) How fast and why do germinating Guanacaste seeds (Enterolobium cyclocarpum) die inside cows and horses? Biotropica 17, 322–325.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jayasuriya, K.G., Baskin, J.M., Geneve, R.L. and Baskin, C.C. (2007) Morphology and anatomy of physical dormancy in Ipomoea lacunosa: identification of the water gap in seeds of Convolvulaceae (Solanales). Annals of Botany 100, 13–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jayasuriya, K.M.G.G., Baskin, J.M. and Baskin, C.C. (2008a) Cycling of sensitivity to physical dormancy break in seeds of Ipomoea lacunosa (Convulvulaceae) and ecological significance. Annals of Botany 101, 341–352.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jayasuriya, K.M.G.G., Baskin, J.M., Geneve, R.L. and Baskin, C.C. (2008b) Physical dormancy in seeds of the holoparasitic angiosperm Cuscuta australis (Convolvulaceae, Cuscuteae): dormancy-breaking requirements, anatomy of the water gap and sensitivity cycling. Annals of Botany 102, 39–48.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jayasuriya, K.M.G.G., Baskin, J.M. and Baskin, C.C. (2009a) Sensitivity cycling and its ecological role in seeds with physical dormancy. Seed Science Research 19, 3–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jayasuriya, K.M.G.G., Baskin, J.M., Geneve, R.L. and Baskin, C.C. (2009b) A proposed mechanism for physical dormancy break in seeds of Ipomoea lacunosa (Convolvulaceae). Annals of Botany 103, 433–445.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jayasuriya, K.M.G.G., Baskin, J.M., Baskin, C.C. and Fernando, M.T.R. (2012) Variation in seed dormancy and storage behavior of three liana species of Derris (Fabaceae, Faboideae) in Sri Lanka and ecological implications. Research Journal of Seed Science 5, 1–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jayasuriya, K.M.G.G., Wijetunga, A.S.T.B., Baskin, J.M. and Baskin, C.C. (2013) Seed dormancy and storage behavior in tropical Fabaceae: a study of 100 species from Sri Lanka. Seed Science Research 23, 257–269.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, T.K. and Jorgensen, C.D. (1981) Ability of desert rodents to find buried seeds. Journal of Range Management 34, 312–314.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jorgensen, E.E. (2001) Emission of volatile compounds by seeds under different environmental conditions. The American Midland Naturalist 145, 419–422.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keeley, J.E. (1987) Role of fire in seed germination of woody taxa in California chaparral. Ecology 68, 434–443.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keeley, J.E. and Keeley, S.C. (1987) Role of fire in the germination of chaparral herbs and suffrutescents. Madrono 34, 240–249.Google Scholar
Keeley, J.E. and Zedler, P.H. (1978) Reproduction of chaparral scrubs after fire: a comparison of sprouting and seeding strategies. The American Midland Naturalist 99, 142–161.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keeley, J.E., Pausas, J.G., Rundel, P.W., Bond, W.J. and Bradstock, R.A. (2011) Fire as an evolutionary pressure shaping plant traits. Trends in Plant Science 16, 406–411.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leck, M.A. (1989) Wetland seed banks. pp. 283–305 in Leck, M.A.; Parker, V.T.; Simpson, R.L. (Eds) Ecology of soil seed banks. London, Academic Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leishman, M.R. and Westoby, M. (1998) Seed size and shape are not related to persistence in soil in Australia in the same way as in Britain. Functional Ecology 12, 480–485.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mahadevan, N. and Jayasuriya, K.M.G.G. (2013) Water-impermeable fruits of the parasitic angiosperm Cassytha filiformis (Lauraceae): confirmation of physical dormancy in Magnoliidae and evolutionary considerations. Australian Journal of Botany 61, 322–329.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maynard Smith, J.S. (1978) On evolution. Edinburgh, Edinburgh University Press.Google Scholar
Maynard Smith, J.S. (1982) Evolution and the theory of games. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McDonald, M.B. (1999) Seed deterioration: physiology, repair and assessment. Seed Science and Technology 27, 177–237.Google Scholar
Meisert, A. (2002) Physical dormancy in Geraniaceae seeds. Seed Science Research 12, 121–128.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Michael, P.J., Steadman, K.J., Plummer, J.A. and Vercoe, P. (2006) Sheep rumen digestion and transmission of weedy Malva parvifolia seeds. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 46, 1251–1256.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, M.F. (1995) Acacia seed survival, seed germination and seedling growth following pod consumption by large herbivores and seed chewing by rodents. African Journal of Ecology 33, 194–210.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moles, A.T., Ackerly, D.D., Webb, C.O., Tweddle, J.C., Dickie, J.B. and Westoby, M. (2005) A brief history of seed size. Science 307, 576–580.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moreira, B. and Pausas, J.G. (2012) Tanned or burned: the role of fire in shaping physical dormancy. PloS One 7 (12), e51523.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morrison, D.A., McClay, K., Porter, C. and Rish, S. (1998) The role of the lens in controlling heat-induced breakdown of testa-imposed dormancy in native Australian legumes. Annals of Botany 82, 35–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nichols, P.G.H., Malik, A.I., Stockdale, M. and Colmer, T.D. (2009) Salt tolerance and avoidance mechanisms at germination of annual pasture legumes: importance for adaptation to saline environments. Plant and Soil 315, 241–255.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nikolaeva, M.G. (1969) Physiology of deep dormancy in seeds. Leningrad, Russia, Izdatel'stvo ‘Nauka’. (Translated from Russian by Z. Shapiro, National Science Foundation, Washington, DC.).Google Scholar
Ooi, M.K.J., Auld, T.D. and Denham, A.J. (2009) Climate change and bet-hedging: interactions between increased soil temperatures and seed bank persistence. Global Change Biology 15, 2375–2386.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paulsen, T.R., Colville, L., Kranner, I., Daws, M.I., Hogstedt, G., Vandvik, V. and Thompson, K. (2013) Physical dormancy in seeds: a game of hide and seek? New Phytologist 198, 496–503.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paulsen, T.R., Högstedt, G., Thompson, K., Vadvik, V. and Eliassen, S. (2014) Conditions favoring hard seededness as a dispersal and predator escape strategy. Journal of Ecology 102, 1475–1484.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Quinlivan, B.J. (1961) The effects of constant and fluctuating temperatures on the permeability of the seeds of some legume species. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 17, 625–631.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ramos, M.E., Robles, A.B. and Castro, J. (2006) Efficiency of endozoochorous seed dispersal in six dry-fruited species (Cistaceae): from seed ingestion to early seedling establishment. Plant Ecology 18, 97–106.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rolston, M.P. (1978) Water impermeable seed dormancy. The Botanical Review 44, 365–390.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sallon, S., Solowey, E., Cohen, Y., Korchinsky, R., Egli, M., Woodhatch, I., Simchoni, O. and Kislev, M. (2008) Germination, genetics and growth of an ancient date seed. Science 320, 1464.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Santana, V., Bradstock, R.A. and Ooi, M. (2010) Effects of soil temperature regimes after fire on seed dormancy and germination in six Australian Fabaceae species. Australian Journal of Botany 58, 539–545.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sera, B. and Sery, M. (2004) Number and weight of seeds and reproductive strategies of herbaceous plants. Folia Geobotanica 39, 27–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shea, S.R., McCormick, J. and Portlock, C.C. (1979) The effect of fire on regeneration of leguminous species in the northern jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata Sun) forest of Western Australia. Australian Journal of Ecology 4, 195–205.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shen-Miller, J., Mudgett, M.B., Schopf, J.W., Clarke, S. and Berger, R. (1995) Exceptional seed longevity and robust growth: ancient sacred lotus from China. American Journal of Botany 82, 1367–1380.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Souza, T.V., Voltolini, C.H., Santos, M. and Paulilo, M.T.S. (2012) Water absorption and dormancy-breaking requirements of physically dormant seeds of Schizolobium parahyba (Fabaceae – Caesalpinioideae). Seed Science Research 22, 169–176.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sweeney, J.R. (1956) Responses of vegetation to fire, a study of the herbaceous vegetation following chaparral fires. University of California Publications in Botany 28, 143–250+ plates 12–27.Google Scholar
Taylor, G.B. (1981) Effect of constant temperature treatments followed by fluctuating temperatures on the softening of hard seeds of Trifolium subterraneum L. Australian Journal of Plant Physiology 8, 547–558.Google Scholar
Taylor, G.B. and Revell, C.K. (1999) Effect of pod burial, light and temperature on seed softening in yellow serradella. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 50, 1203–1209.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Taylorson, R.B. (1970) Phytochrome controlled changes in dormancy and germination of buried weed seeds. Weed Science 27, 7–10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Telewski, F.W. and Zeevaart, J.A.D. (2002) The 120-yr period for Dr. Beal's seed viability experiment. American Journal of Botany 89, 1285–1288.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thompson, K., Grime, J.P. and Mason, G. (1977) Seed germination in response to diurnal fluctuations of temperature. Nature 267, 147–149.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thompson, K., Band, S.R. and Hodgson, J.G. (1993) Seed size and shape predict persistence in soil. Functional Ecology 7, 236–241.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thonicke, K., Venevsky, S., Sitch, S. and Cramer, W. (2001) The role of fire disturbance for global vegetation dynamics: coupling fire into a dynamic global vegetation model. Global Ecology and Biogeography 10, 661–677.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Toole, E.H. and Brown, E. (1946) Final results of the Duvel buried seed experiment. Journal of Agricultural Research 72, 201–210.Google Scholar
Van Assche, J.A. and Vandelook, F.E.A. (2006) Germination ecology of eleven species of Geraniaceae and Malvaceae, with special reference to the effects of drying seeds. Seed Science Research 16, 283–290.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van Assche, J.A., Debucquoy, K.L.A. and Rommens, W.A.F. (2003) Seasonal cycles in the germination capacity of buried seeds of some Leguminosae (Fabaceae). New Phytologist 158, 315–323.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vander Wall, S.B. (1998) Foraging success of granivorous rodents: effects of variation in seed and soil water on olfaction. Ecology 79, 233–241.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van Klinken, R.D., Flack, L.K. and Pettit, W. (2006) Wet season dormancy release in seed banks of a tropical leguminous shrub is determined by wet heat. Annals of Botany 98, 875–883.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vazquez-Yanes, C. and Orozco-Segovia, A. (1982) Seed germination of a tropical rain forest pioneer tree (Heliocarpus donnell-smithii) in response to diurnal fluctuation of temperature. Physiologia Plantarum 56, 295–298.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vazquez-Yanes, C. and Orozco-Segovia, A. (1994) Signals for seeds to sense and respond to gaps. pp. 209–236 in Caldwell, M.M.; Pearcy, R.W. (Eds) Exploitation of environmental heterogeneity by plants. San Diego, Academic Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wallace, A.R. (1859) On the tendency of varieties to depart indefinitely from the original type. Paper presented along with Darwin's ‘Abstract’ on natural selection (actually the first edition of The Origin of Species) at the meeting of the Linnaean Society which established Darwin's primacy to the theory of natural selection.Google Scholar
Williams, P.R., Congdon, R.A., Grice, A.C. and Clarke, P.J. (2003) Fire related cues break seed dormancy of six legumes of tropical eucalypt savannas in north-eastern Australia. Austral Ecology 28, 507–514.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Willis, C.G., Baskin, C.C., Baskin, J.M., Auld, J.R., Venable, D.L., Cavender-Bares, J., Donohue, K., de Casas, R.R. and the NESCent germination working group. (2014) The evolution of seed dormancy: environmental cues, evolutionary hubs, and diversification of the seed plants. New Phytologist 203, 300–309.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wright, S. (1932) The roles of mutation, inbreeding, crossbreeding and selection in evolution. pp. 356–366 in Proceedings of the sixth international congress of genetics, August 1932 , Ithaca, New York.Google Scholar
Yu, Y., Baskin, J., Baskin, C., Tang, Y. and Cao, M. (2008) Ecology of seed germination of eight non-pioneer tree species from a tropical seasonal rainforest in southwest China. Plant Ecology 197, 1–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zedler, P.H. (1981) Vegetation change in chaparral and desert communities in San Diego County, California. pp. 406–430 in West, D.C.; Shugart, H.H.; Botkin, D. (Eds) Forest succession: Concepts and applications. New York, Springer-Verlag.CrossRefGoogle Scholar