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2. Graumann, Carl F. and Moscovici, Serge, eds., Changing Conceptions of Leadership (New York and Berlin: Springer Verlag, 1986), p. 2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

3. See Bass, Bernard M., ed., Stogdill's Handbook of Leadership (New York: Free Press, 1981).Google Scholar

4. For example, Fiske, Susan T. and Taylor, Shelley E., Social Cognition (Reading, MA: 1984);Google Scholar and Nisbett, Richard and Ross, Less, Human Inference (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1980).Google Scholar

5. Compare, for example, the articles in Kellerman, Barbara, Leadership: Multidisciplinary Perspectives (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1984) with those in Graumann and Moscovici, Changing Conceptions of Leadership.Google Scholar

6. See my “Introduction” to Edinger, Lewis J., ed., Political Leadership in Industrial Societies (New York: Wiley, 1967).Google Scholar

7. See, for example, the preference for “systemic” over “reductionist” explanations in Waltz, Kenneth, Theories of International Politics (Reading, MA: Addison Wesley, 1979).Google Scholar

8. See, for example, Maier, Charles S., Recasting Bourgeois Europe (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975);Google Scholar and Skocpol, Thea, States and Social Revolutions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

9. See, for example, Farnetti, Paolo, “Social Conflict, Parliamentary Institutional Shift, and the Rise of Fascism: Italy,” in The Breakdown of Democratic Regimes: Europe, ed. Linz, Juan J. and Stepan, Alfred (Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins Press; 1978), pp. 3–33;Google ScholarBialer, Seweryn, Stalin's Successors (London and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1980);Google ScholarBreslauer, George M., Khrushchev and Brezhnev as Leaders (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1982);Google Scholar and, with particular reference to innovations by “new” leaders in Western and Communist systems, Bunce, Valerie, Do New Leaders Make a Difference? (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

10. Like others who have dealt with this issue, my discussion of it here and elsewhere is greatly indebted to Max Weber's seminal work. See, in particular, his “Objective Possibility and Adequate Causation in Historical Explanation,” in The Methodology of the Social Sciences (New York, 1949), pp. 164–88.Google Scholar I would like to thank Prof. Harvey Goldman for calling my attention to a republication of the original German version in Weber, Max, Gesammelte Aufsätze zur Wissenschaftslehre (Tubingen: J. C. B. Mohr [Paul Siebeck], 1969).Google Scholar

11. See, for example, Hargrove, Erwin C. and Nelson, Michael, Presidents, Politics and Policy (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1984).Google Scholar

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13. Page, Benjamin I. and Petracca, Mark P., The American Presidency (New York: McGraw Hill, 1983), p.383.Google Scholar

14. Seligman, Lester, “Leadership: Political Aspects,” in International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, ed. Sills, David (New York: Macmillan, 1968), vol. 9, pp. 107–113;Google ScholarRose, Richard and Suleiman, Ezra N., eds., Presidents and Prime Ministers (Washington: American Enterprise Institute, 1980).Google Scholar

15. See, for example, the essays by Wildavsky, , Peppers, , and Henkin, in Wildavski, Aron, ed., Perspectives on the Presidency (Boston: Litde, Brown, 1975), pp. 448–86,Google Scholar as well as Pious, American Presidency; and Cronin, Thomas E., The State of the Presidency, 2d. ed. (Boston: Little, Brown, 1980).Google Scholar

16. Wriggins, Howard, The Ruler's Imperative (New York and London: Columbia University Press, 1969), pp. 222–27.Google Scholar

17. Jackson, and Rosberg, , Personal Rule in Black Africa, p. 30.Google Scholar

18. For a good introduction see the essays on “Leadership and Public Choice,” in Leadership and Politics: New Perspectives in Political Science, ed. Jones, Bryan D. (Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 1989).Google Scholar

19. For example, Sickles's, Robert J.Presidential Transactions (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1974), employs a rational choice model to establish and explain recurrent patterns of interaction between the American chief executive on the one hand and top bureaucrats, legislators, and other key actors on the other. See, also, essays and citations in Jones, Leadership and Politics, passim.Google Scholar

20. Frohlich, Norman, Oppenheimer, Joe A., and Young, Oran R., Political Leadership and Collective Goods (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1971).Google Scholar

21. de Mesquita, Bruce Bueno, The War Trap (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1981), pp. 17, 29–30.Google Scholar For instance, “Hitler's decision to start the war in 1939—neither sooner nor later” was in that sense “made in a manner consistent with the notion of expected utility maximalization” (p. 175).

22. See, for example, George, Alexander L. and George, Juliette L., Woodrow Wilson and Colonel House (New York: Dover, 1964);Google ScholarTucker, Robert C., Stalin as a Revolutionary (New York: Norton, 1973);Google ScholarWaite, Robert G., The Psychopathic God: Adolf Hitler (New York: Basic Books, 1977).Google Scholar

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24. See, for example, Paige, Glenn, The Scientific Study of Political Leadership (New York: The Free Press, 1977).Google Scholar

25. Most notably—following in the footsteps of Barber, Harold D. Lasswell—James, The Presidential Character, 3d. ed.(Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1985).Google Scholar These days “psychological studies are probably the most widely criticized writings on the presidency. A fundamental problem is that they often display a strong tendency toward being reductionist, that is, they concentrate on personality to the exclusion of most other behavioral influences” (Edwards, George C. III, “Studying the Presidency,” in The Presidency and the Political System, ed. Nelson, Michael [Washington: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1984], p. 34).Google Scholar

26. See Jones, Bryan D., “Leader/Follower Interactions in Mass Democracies: Follower-Driven Models,” in Jones, Leadership and Politics, pp. 41–56.Google Scholar

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30. Nisbett, Richard and Ross, Less, Human Inference (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1980), p. 11.Google Scholar

31. In some usages the term political culture encompasses political behavior as well as attitudes, in others it also takes in supposedly underlying cultural patterns.

32. Jackson and Rosberg, Personal Rule in Black Africa.

33. Almond, Gabriel A., Flanagan, Scott, and Mundt, Robert, eds., Crisis, Choice, and Change (Boston: Little, Brown, 1973), p. 18.Google Scholar

34. Hargrove and Nelson, Presidents, Politics and Policy; Kellerman, Barbara, The Political Presidency (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984).Google Scholar

35. Almond, , Flanagan, , AND Mundt, , Crisis, Choice and Change, p. 638.Google Scholar A culturally more deep-seated theory of political leadership is outlined by Wildavsky, in Jones, , Leadership and Politics, pp.97–113.Google Scholar

36. Almond, , Flanagan, , AND Mundt, , Crisis, Choice and Change, p. 321.Google Scholar

37. Neustadt, Richard E., Presidential Power: The Politics of Leadership, rev. ed. (New York: Wiley, 1980).Google Scholar

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39. Hargrove, and Nelson, , Presidents, Politics and Policy, pp. 126, 197.Google Scholar

40. Burg, Steven L. “Elite Conflict in Post-Tito Yugoslavia,” Soviet Studies 19 (1986).Google Scholar

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42. Davis, Nathaniel, The Last Years of Salvador Allende (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1985).Google Scholar

43. See, for example, Hopkins, R. F., “Securing Authority,” World Politics 24 (1972): 271–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

44. Breslauer, Khrushev and Brezhnev as Leaders.

45. Jackson, and Rosberg, , Personal Rule in Black Africa, p. 121 and passim.Google Scholar

46. See Rose, Richard in Rose, and Suleiman, , Presidents and Prime Ministers, p. 44.Google Scholar In this connection, see also Heady, E. W., “The Role Skills of Cabinet Ministers” in Political Studies, March 1974, p. 67.Google Scholar

47. See Seligman, , “Leadership: Political Aspects,” pp. 108–109.Google Scholar

48. Almond, , Flanagan, , AND Mundt, , Crisis, Choice and Change, p. 18.Google Scholar

49. Grainger, J.H., Character and Style in British Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969), p. 7.Google Scholar