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Subject matters: Imperialism and the constitution of International Relations

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 October 2022

Peter Marcus Kristensen Open the ORCID record for Peter Marcus Kristensen [Opens in a new window]
Peter Marcus Kristensen*
Affiliation:
Department of Political Science, University of Copenhagen, Denmark
*
*Corresponding author. Email: pmk@ifs.ku.dk
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Abstract

This article contributes to the critical historical research that has demythologised the ‘noble origins’ of the International Relations discipline (IR) by exposing its imperial, colonial, and racist legacies. Where most critical historiographies have unveiled the centrality of racialised and imperialist ontologies in individual thinkers and theories, this article traces imperialist origins of international thought by reconstructing its impact on administrative-institutional infrastructures. Specifically, it interrogates the most systematic and institutionalised attempt to define the ‘subject matter’ of IR under the International Studies Conference (ISC) organised by the International Institute of Intellectual Cooperation (IIIC) of the League of Nations. Through a parallel reading of the archives from ISC's ‘administrative meetings’ and ‘study meetings’, the article contends that the seemingly academic discussions on the subject matter of IR in the ‘administrative meetings’ were in fact intertwined with the imperialist-colonial politics central to ‘study meetings’. The article thus not only challenges IR's conventional history, but its historical ontologies by revealing how race and empire were central to the constitution of its very subject matter and its early institutionalisation.

Keywords

Disciplinary History of International RelationsSubject MatterImperialismRacismInterwar PeriodInternational Studies Conference
Type
Research Article
Information
Review of International Studies , Volume 49 , Issue 3 , July 2023 , pp. 448 - 470
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2022. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the British International Studies Association

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References

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8 Tarek Barkawi and Mark Laffey, ’Retrieving the imperial’, Millennium, 31:1 (2002), pp. 110–11.

9 Ibid., p. 9; Randolph Persaud and Alina Sajed, Race, Gender, and Culture in International Relations (London, UK: Routledge, 2018), pp. 3–4.

10 Hobson, The Eurocentric Conception of World Politics, pp. 5, 25–8; Bayly, ‘Imperialism’, p. 359; Morefield, Empires Without Imperialism.

11 Randolph Persaud and R. B. J. Walker, ‘Apertura: Race in International Relations’, Alternatives, 26:4 (2001), p. 373.

12 Henderson, ‘Hidden in plain sight’, p. 72; see also Acharya, Amitav, ‘Race and racism in the founding of the modern world order’, International Affairs, 98:1 (2022), pp. 25–6CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Sabaratnam, Meera, ‘Is IR theory white?’, Millennium, 49:1 (2020), pp. 6–7Google Scholar.

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15 Hobson, The Eurocentric Conception of World Politics; Duncan Bell, Empire, Race and Global Justice (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2019).

16 Long, David, ‘Who killed the International Studies conference?’, Review of International Studies, 32:4 (2006), p. 603CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Riemens, Michael, ‘International academic cooperation on international relations in the interwar period’, Review of International Studies, 37:2 (2011), pp. 911–28CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Jo-Anne Pemberton, The Story of International Relations, Part One (Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 2020); Joanne Pemberton, The Story of International Relations, Part Two (Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 2019); Joanne Pemberton, The Story of International Relations, Part Three (Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 2020).

17 Edith Ware and James Shotwell, The Study of International Relations in the United States (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1934); Stanley Bailey, International Studies in Modern Education (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1938); Alfred Zimmern, ‘University Teaching of International Relations’ (International Institute of Intellectual Co-operation, League of Nations, 1939); C. A. W. Manning, ‘The University Teaching of Social Sciences: International Relations’ (Geneva: UNESCO, 1954).

18 As outlined in a 1930 memorandum to the third ISC by John Condliffe, research secretary of the IPR, the IPR also facilitated international collaboration among national committees that jointly decided on a programme topic that was ‘of greatest importance at the time’ and then sent members from a range of different disciplines as well as representatives from business and politics for biannual conferences organised in round tables that ‘consider a definite problem in its entirety; John Condliffe, ‘International Collaboration in the Study of International Relations [AG 1-IICI-C-88]’ (1930), pp. 11–12.

19 IIIC, ‘Agenda of the Programme Meeting on the University Teaching of International Relations, International Studies Conference: Tenth Session Paris, June 28th – July 3rd, 1937 [AG 1-IICI-K 1935-1939-96]’ (1937), p. 2.

20 See Said, Culture and Imperialism; Krishna, ‘Race, amnesia’; Bilgin, Pinar, ‘“Contrapuntal reading” as a method, an ethos, and a metaphor for global IR’, International Studies Review, 18:1 (2016), pp. 134–46CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

21 Some examples are the ‘peaceful change’ discussions, the ISC's attempt to make IR ‘more international’, or the traces of realist-idealist debate in the ISC, all of which I examine at length elsewhere. Many other stories can also be found in Pemberton's recent three-volume work. This article, however, will focus specifically on the intersection between the disciplinary debates in the administrative sessions and the imperial-colonial dimension of the study meetings. See also Peter Marcus Kristensen, ‘“Peaceful change” in International Relations: A conceptual archaeology’, International Theory, 13:1 (2021), pp. 36–67; Peter Marcus Kristensen and Arlene Tickner, ‘Beyond a “more international” International Relations’, in John M. Hobson and Allan Lauyg (eds), Is International Theory International? (London, UK: Routledge, forthcoming); Peter Marcus Kristensen and Ole Wæver, ‘Realism-Idealism Debate at the International Studies Conference’, working paper (Copenhagen: University of Copenhagen, 2022).

22 IIIC, ‘Report to the Sub-Committee on University relations on the Meeting of Experts for the co-ordination of Higher International Studies, Berlin, March 22-24, 1928 [AG 1-IICI-C-27]’ (1928), pp. 3–4.

23 IIIC, ‘The University Teaching of International Relations: Report of a Preliminary Discussion. London, June 7, 1935 [AG 1-IICI-K 1935-1939-25]’ (1935), p. 9.

24 Ibid., p. 13.

25 IIIC, ‘Peaceful Change: Procedures, Population, Raw Maaterials, Colonies’ (Paris: International Institute of Intellectual Co-operation, 1938), p. 596.

26 Cited in Zimmern, ‘University Teaching of International Relations’ (1939), pp. 246, x.

27 E. H. Carr, The Twenty Years’ Crisis, 1919–1939 (London, UK: Macmillan, 1939)

28 See supra note 1 and 2.

29 Pemberton, The Story of International Relations, Part One, pp. 2–3.

30 Bailey, International Studies in Modern Education.

31 Zimmern in Zimmern, ‘University Teaching of International Relations’ (1939), p. 216.

32 Vitalis, White World Order, p. 6.

33 IIIC, ‘University Teaching of International Relations: A Short Record of the Discussions Held During the Ninth International Studies Conference, 1936 [AG 1-IICI-K 1935-1939-70]’ (1936), p. 66.

34 Vitalis, White World Order, p. 6.

35 Manning in Zimmern, ‘University Teaching of International Relations’ (1939), p. 228.

36 IIIC, ‘The University Teaching of International Relations: Report of a Preliminary Discussion’, p. 7; IIIC, ‘University Teaching of International Relations: A Short Record of the Discussions Held During the Ninth International Studies Conference’, pp. 9, 23–4, 171.

37 IIIC, ‘The University Teaching of International Relations: Report of a Preliminary Discussion’, p. 19; IIIC, ‘University Teaching of International Relations: A Short Record of the Discussions Held During the Ninth International Studies Conference’, pp. 10, 105, 130; Sofronie in Zimmern, ‘University Teaching of International Relations’ (1939), p. 234.

38 Vitalis, ‘The noble American science of imperial relations’.

39 ‘The Conference of Institutions for the Scientific Study of International Relations’, Journal of the Royal Institute of International Affairs, 8:3 (1929), pp. 191, 202.

40 IIIC, ‘Peaceful Change’, p. 564.

41 Sofronie and Deryng in Zimmern, ‘University Teaching of International Relations’ (1939), pp. 242, 320.

42 IIIC, ‘University Teaching of International Relations: A Short Record of the Discussions Held During the Ninth International Studies Conference’, p. 75; Bonnet in Zimmern, ‘University Teaching of International Relations’ (1939), pp. 222–3.

43 Alfred Zimmern, ‘University Teaching of International Relations: Preliminary Memorandum [AG 1-IICI-K-XI-3]’ (1937), p. 6.

44 See, for example, Charles Manning, Stanley Bailey, Richard Kerschagl, Waclaw Komarnicki, Obdulio Fernandez, Ludwig Ehrlich, Vaclav Joachim, Antoni Deryng, José de Yanguas Messía, and Giannino Dalle Spade in IIIC, ‘University Teaching of International Relations: A Short Record of the Discussions Held During the Ninth International Studies Conference’, pp. 18, 42, 70, 79, 104–06, 125, 128–40.

45 Deryng in Ibid., p. 23; Antonesco in Zimmern, ‘University Teaching of International Relations’ (1939), p. 249.

46 Riemens, ‘International academic cooperation on International Relations’, p. 919.

47 IIIC, ‘The State and Economic Life’ (Paris: International Institute of Intellectual Co-operation, 1934), p. 41.

48 Alfred Zimmern, ‘Report Presented at the Fifth Session of the Conference of Institutions for the Scientific Study of International Relations, Milan, May 23–27, 1932 [AG 1-IICI-C 1932-21]’ (1932), p. 4.

49 IIIC, ‘A Record of the First International Study Conference on the State and Economic Life, with Special Reference to International Economic and Political Relations, Held at Milan on May 23–27, 1932’ (Paris: International Institute of Intellectual Co-operation, 1932), pp. 4–6.

50 Ibid., pp. 97–9, 111.

51 IIIC, ‘The State and Economic Life’, pp. 306, 181–211, 226, 284–92, 304–16.

52 Ibid., p. 292.

53 Ibid., pp. 182–4.

54 Ibid., pp. 200–01, 195.

55 Ibid., pp. 192, 199, 275.

56 Ibid., p. 230; IIIC, ‘A Record of the First International Study Conference on the State and Economic Life’, pp. 18, 98.

57 IIIC, ‘The State and Economic Life’, pp. 292–3.

58 Ibid., p. 226.

59 Ibid., p. 196.

60 Namely, the sympathy Carr expressed with ‘Herr Hitler’, the Munich Agreement and peaceful change in the first edition (1939) of The Twenty Years’ Crisis.

61 Alfred Zimmern, ‘Report on the Sixth Session of the International Studies Conference (Administrative Meeting) [AG 1-IICI-C 1933-67]’ (1933), pp. 6–7.

62 Katharina Rietzler, ‘Before the cultural cold wars’, Historical Research, 84:223 (2011), p. 163.

63 Pemberton, The Story of International Relations, Part Three, p. 53.

64 IIIC, ‘Collective Security’ (Paris: International Institute of Intellectual Co-operation, 1936), p. 394.

65 Duncan Bell, ‘Before the democratic peace’, European Journal of International, 20:3 (2014), pp. 647–70; Bell, Reordering the World; Duncan Bell, Dreamworlds of Race (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2020); Long and Schmidt, Imperialism and Internationalism in the Discipline of International Relations; Morefield, Empires Without Imperialism; Vitalis, ‘The noble American science of imperial relations’.

66 Ian Hall, Radicals and Reactionaries in Twentieth-Century International Thought (Cham: Palgrave, p. 2015); Jens Steffek, ‘Fascist internationalism’, Millennium, 44:1 (2015), pp. 3–22.

67 See also Kristensen and Tickner, ‘Beyond a “more international” International Relations’.

68 IIIC (1928), ‘Report to the Sub-Committee on University relations’, item 6, p. 2.

69 Cited in Alfred Zimmern, ‘Memorandum on a Proposed Conference of Educationists, Fourth Conference of Institutions for the Scientific Study of International Relations, Copenhagen, June 8–10, 1931 [AG 1-IICI-C-111]’ (International Institute of Intellectual Co-operation, 1931), p. 5.

70 Riemens, ‘International academic cooperation on International Relations’, p. 920.

71 Chadwick Alger, ‘Introduction’, in Peaceful Change (New York, NY: Garland Publishing, 1972), p. 16.

72 Long, ‘Who killed the International Studies Conference?’, pp. 606–08; Pemberton, The Story of International Relations, Part One, p. 4.

73 Vitalis, White World Order, p. 107.

74 IIIC, ‘Preliminary Study Conference on Collective Security [AG 1-IICI-C 1934-93]’ (1934), p. 192.

75 Peter Wilson, ‘Where are we now in the debate about the First Great Debate?’, in Brian Schmidt (ed.), International Relations and the First Great Debate (London, UK: Routledge, 2012), p. 146.

76 IIIC, ‘The State and Economic Life’, pp. 69, 88, 93, 223; IIIC, ‘Preliminary Study Conference on Collective Security’, pp. 195–6.

77 IIIC, ‘Peaceful Change’, pp. 315, 505.

78 IIIC, ‘Collective Security’, p. 262.

79 Toynbee and Bourquin in IIIC, ‘Preliminary Study Conference on Collective Security’, pp. 5, 196, 200–01.

80 IIIC, ‘Collective Security’, p. 43.

81 Ibid., p. 172.

82 Cybichowski in IIIC, ‘Preliminary Study Conference on Collective Security’, S11.

83 Ibid., pp. 292–4.

84 IIIC, ‘Collective Security’, p. 165.

85 IIIC, ‘Minutes of a General Study Conference on Collective Security [AG 1-IICI-K 1935-1939-24]’ (1935), p. 48.

86 Rocco D'Alfonso, ‘Guerra, Ordine e Razza Nel Nazionalismo di Francesco Coppola’, Il Politico, 65:4 (2000), pp. 539–70.

87 IIIC, ‘Collective Security’, p. 183; IIIC, ‘Minutes of a General Study Conference on Collective Security’, p. 158.

88 IIIC, ‘Minutes of a General Study Conference on Collective Security’, p. 126.

89 IIIC, ‘Collective Security’, p. 180.

90 IIIC, ‘Minutes of a General Study Conference on Collective Security’, p. 56.

91 IIIC, ‘Collective Security’, p. 184.

92 Ibid., pp. 461–2.

93 IIIC, ‘The University Teaching of International Relations. Report of a Preliminary Discussion’, p. 1.

94 IIIC, ‘University Teaching of International Relations: A Short Record of the Discussions Held During the Ninth International Studies Conference’, p. 122.

95 Ibid., p. 1.

96 Alfred Zimmern, ‘The University Teaching of International Relations: A Paper Prepared for the Conference's Administrative Meeting [AG 1-IICI-K 1935-1939-6]’ (1935), p. 4; IIIC, ‘University Teaching of International Relations: A Short Record of the Discussions Held During the Ninth International Studies Conference’, p. 180.

97 Zimmern, ‘Report Presented at the Fifth Session of the Conference’, p. 3; IIIC, ‘The University Teaching of International Relations: Analysis of the Preliminary Discussion held in London on June 7, 1935 [AG 1-IICI-K 1935-1939-32]’ (1935), p. 2; IIIC, ‘University Teaching of International Relations: A Short Record of the Discussions Held During the Ninth International Studies Conference’, pp. 9, 169.

98 Vranek and Mantoux in IIIC, ‘The University Teaching of International Relations: Report of a Preliminary Discussion’, pp. 7, 13.

99 IIIC, ‘University Teaching of International Relations: A Short Record of the Discussions Held During the Ninth International Studies Conference’, p. 169.

100 Ibid., p. 170.

101 Winiarski in Zimmern, ‘University Teaching of International Relations’ (1939), pp. 257–8.

102 Sofronie and Antonesco in Ibid., pp. 243, 250.

103 IIIC, ‘University Teaching of International Relations: A Short Record of the Discussions Held During the Ninth International Studies Conference’, p. 124; Zimmern in Zimmern, ‘University Teaching of International Relations’ (1939), pp. 248, 326.

104 IIIC, ‘University Teaching of International Relations: A Short Record of the Discussions Held During the Ninth International Studies Conference’, pp. 42, 169; Sofronie and Boyer in Zimmern, ‘University Teaching of International Relations’ (1939), pp. 226, 234, 280–1.

105 Deryng in IIIC, ‘University Teaching of International Relations: A Short Record of the Discussions Held During the Ninth International Studies Conference’, p. 23.

106 Zimmern, ‘University Teaching of International Relations’ (1939), pp. 7–8; Zimmern, ‘The University Teaching of International Relations: A Paper Prepared for the Conference's Administrative Meeting’, p. 3.

107 See Justin Rosenberg and Milja Kurki (eds), Multiplicity (London, UK: Routledge, 2021).

108 IIIC, ‘University Teaching of International Relations: A Short Record of the Discussions Held During the Ninth International Studies Conference’, pp. 128, 160, 173; Von Verdross, Komarnicki, Winiarski in Zimmern, ‘University Teaching of International Relations’ (1939), pp. 23, 254–6, 279.

109 Zimmern, ‘University Teaching of International Relations: Preliminary Memorandum’.

110 Zimmern, ‘The University Teaching of International Relations: A Paper Prepared for the Conference's Administrative Meeting’, p. 2.

111 Joachim in IIIC, ‘University Teaching of International Relations: A Short Record of the Discussions Held During the Ninth International Studies Conference’, pp. 32–5; Boyer in Zimmern, ‘University Teaching of International Relations’ (1939), pp. 280–1.

112 Lambert in IIIC, ‘University Teaching of International Relations: A Short Record of the Discussions Held During the Ninth International Studies Conference’, pp. 49–50, emphasis in original, see also 161–2. On top of which came a long list of ‘institutions of international society’ included in the subject matter.

113 Mair contributed a lecture and chapter on colonial policy and peaceful change to the LSE lecture series and subsequent volume edited by Manning leading up to the 1937 ISC on Peaceful Change. Charles Manning (ed.), Peaceful Change (London, UK: Macmillan, 1937).

114 Mair cited in Owens, Patricia, ‘Women and the history of international thought’, International Studies Quarterly, 62:3 (2018), pp. 467–81CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

115 IIIC, ‘The State and Economic Life’, p. 21.

116 Ibid., pp. 27–8.

117 Ibid., pp. 87, 96.

118 Ibid., pp. 96–8.

119 Ibid., pp. 86–7; IIIC, ‘Peaceful Change’, pp. 321–2.

120 IIIC, ‘The State and Economic Life’, p. 92.

121 Ibid., pp. 101–08.

122 The exact wording in IIIC, ‘Peaceful Change’, p. 447.

123 Zimmern, ‘Memorandum on a Proposed Conference of Educationists’, p. 2; Zimmern, ‘The University Teaching of International Relations: A Paper Prepared for the Conference's Administrative Meeting’; IIIC, ‘University Teaching of International Relations: A Short Record of the Discussions Held During the Ninth International Studies Conference’, pp. 138–9.

124 Zimmern, ‘Report Presented at the Fifth Session of the Conference’, p. 2.

125 ‘The Conference of Institutions for the Scientific Study of International Relations’, p. 200.

126 Zimmern, ‘The University Teaching of International Relations: A Paper Prepared for the Conference's Administrative Meeting’, pp. 5–6; Zimmern, ‘University Teaching of International Relations’ (1939), p. 9 emphasis in original.

127 IIIC, ‘The University Teaching of International Relations: Report of a Preliminary Discussion’, pp. 36–7.

128 Zimmern, ‘University Teaching of International Relations’ (1939), p. 10.

129 Ibid., p. 327.

130 Antonesco in Ibid., p. 84.

131 IIIC, ‘The University Teaching of International Relations: Report of a Preliminary Discussion’, pp. 8, 18.

132 Zimmern, ‘The University Teaching of International Relations: A Paper Prepared for the Conference's Administrative Meeting’, pp. 7–9.

133 Harrison, W. E. C., ‘The university teaching of international affairs’, Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science, 2:3 (1936), p. 434CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

134 See, for example, Alfred von Verdross, Frede Castberg, Waclaw Komarnicki, Charles Manning, Georges Sofronie, Georges Vladesco-Racoassa in IIIC, ‘University Teaching of International Relations: A Short Record of the Discussions Held During the Ninth International Studies Conference’, pp. 10, 36, 67, 160, 173; Zimmern, ‘University Teaching of International Relations’ (1939), p. 227.

135 Manning in Zimmern, ‘University Teaching of International Relations’ (1939), pp. 235–6.

136 Manning in IIIC, ‘University Teaching of International Relations: A Short Record of the Discussions Held During the Ninth International Studies Conference’, p. 67.

137 Ibid., p. 68.

138 Ibid., pp. 46, 125–7, 131–6, 144–6.

139 Ibid., pp. 141–3, 173; Zimmern, ‘University Teaching of International Relations’ (1939), pp. 253–83.

140 Zimmern, ‘The University Teaching of International Relations: A Paper Prepared for the Conference's Administrative Meeting’, p. 2.

141 Zimmern in Pemberton, The Story of International Relations, Part Two, p. 516.

142 IIIC, ‘Peaceful Change’, p. 651; as noted by Pemberton, The Story of International Relations, Part Three, p. 138.

143 IIIC, ‘Peaceful Change’, p. 22.

144 Ibid., pp. 27–8.

145 Ibid., pp. 206, 274–6, 307–14.

146 Ibid., pp. 314–18, 462, 506–13.

147 Ibid., pp. 117–19, 138–9, 142, 360–5, 392, 599.

148 Ibid., pp. 362–3.

149 Hobson, The Eurocentric Conception of World Politics, p. 6.

150 Ibid., pp. 128, 488.

151 IIIC, ‘Peaceful Change’, pp. 118, 138–9, 147, 372–3, 490.

152 Ibid., pp. 139–40.

153 Ibid., p. 169.

154 Ibid., pp. 211–13.

155 Ibid., pp. 175–7, 415.

156 Ibid., pp. 443, 448.

157 Ibid., pp. 83, 101–04, 208, 334, 472, 500.

158 Ibid., pp. 451, 470.

159 Pemberton, The Story of International Relations, Part Three, p. 188.

160 IIIC, ‘Peaceful Change’, pp. 309, 473.

161 Ibid., pp. 446, 456–8, 463.

162 Ibid., p. 445.

163 Ibid., p. 399.

164 Ibid., pp. 469, 438.

165 Ibid., pp. 440–1.

166 Ibid., pp. 375–6.

167 Ibid., p. 352.

168 Ibid., pp. 465–7.

169 IIIC, ‘Collective Security’, p. 277.

170 IIIC, ‘Peaceful Change’, pp. 464–5.

171 Ibid., pp. 467, 479.

172 Ibid., pp. 418, 450–1, 460, 477.

173 Richardson, Shiels, and Wright in Ibid., pp. 450–3, 460–3, 477, 524.

174 Pemberton, The Story of International Relations, Part Three, pp. 198–201.

175 Zimmern, ‘University Teaching of International Relations: Preliminary Memorandum’, p. 2.

176 Alfred Zimmern, ‘Note by Sir A. Zimmern on the Agenda of the Meetings on the University Teaching of International Relations [AG 1-IICI-K-XI-18]’ (1938), p. 2.

177 Zimmern in Zimmern, ‘University Teaching of International Relations’ (1939), p. 218.

178 IIIC, ‘Agenda of the Programme Meeting on the University Teaching of International Relations’, p. 2.

179 IIIC, ‘Peaceful Change’, p. 418.

180 Ibid., pp. 463, 473.

181 Vitalis, White World Order.

182 Paul, T. V., ‘Recasting statecraft: International Relations and strategies of peaceful change’, International Studies Quarterly, 61:1 (2017), pp. 1–13CrossRefGoogle Scholar.