¹ On the role of war as the fundamental mechanism of change in the international system, see Gilpin, Robert, War and Change in World Politics (Cambridge, 1981).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

² See Havel, Vaclav et al., The Power of the Powerless; Citizens Against the State in Central-Eastern Europe, (London, 1985)Google Scholar.

³ Niebuhr, Reinhold, Christian Realism and Political Problems (New York, 1953)Google Scholar.

⁴ Kennan, George, American Diplomacy 1900–1950 (Chicago, 1951)Google Scholar.

⁵ On anarchy, see Oye, Kenneth (ed.), Cooperation Under Anarchy (Princeton, 1986)Google Scholar; on the law of uneven growth, see Robert Gilpin, War and Change.

⁶ My argument here is that a critical reflection on political praxis could profit more from a coherent elaboration of the standards of practical reason and judgement than from the problematic attempt of applying the model of theoretical reason to practical problems. In other words, the appropriate model for a critical examination of practice is Kant's second and third rather than first critique. For an attempt of applying the approach outlined in Kant's Kritik der Urteilskraft to the problem of politics see Beiner, Ronald, Political Judgement (Chicago, 1983)Google Scholar

⁷ Bull, Hedley, ‘International Theory: The Case for the Classical Approach’, in Knorr, Klaus and Rosenau, James (eds.), Contending Approaches to International Politics (Princeton, 1969)Google Scholar.

⁸ Hirschman, Albert, ‘The Search for Paradigms as the Hindrance to Understanding’, World Politics, 22 (April 1970), pp. 329–40CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁹ See Ricci, David M., The Tragedy of Political Science (New Haven, 1984)Google Scholar.

¹⁰ Although I am using here the game metaphor, fronrwhat I said abov e it should be clear that I am not talking about a game-theoretical approach. Rather the term ‘game’ is here used in the sense of Wittgenstein's ‘form of life’ which is constituted by norms and rules (Wittgenstein, Ludwig, Philosophical Investigations, 3rd edn, translated by Anscombe, G. E. M. (New York, 1968)Google Scholar.

¹¹ For a further elaboration on the idea of constructivism, see Onuf, Nicholas G., World of Our Making (Columbia, 1989)Google Scholar, ch. 1.

¹² See Fukajama, Francis, ‘The End of History?’, The National Interest (Summer 1988)Google Scholar.

¹³ This was the argument made by Robert Keohane at a conference in La Jolla, 6 December 1990. The same point was made over and over again by Steve Walt and Kenneth Waltz among others at a conference at Cornell in October 1991.

¹⁴ See, for example, Ashley, Richard, ‘The Poverty of Neorealism’, International Organization, 38, no. 2 (Spring 1984), pp. 225–86CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Berki, R. N., On Political Realism (London, 1981)Google Scholar; Walker, R. B. J., ‘Realism, Change and International Political Theory’, International Studies Quarterly, 31 (1987, pp. 55–86CrossRefGoogle Scholar; R. B. J. Walker, Inside I Outside International Relations as Political Theory (Cambridge, forthcoming).

¹⁵ The perfect illustration of such a gambit is Kenneth Waltz's acceptance of the criticism that power is misconceptualized when it is treated as a fungible capability while still maintaining that power ‘is more fungible than [many of the critics] allow’. Waltz, Kenneth ‘Reflection on Theory of International Politics: A Response to my Critics’, in Keohane, Robert (ed.), Neorealism and its Critics (New York, 1986), pp. 322–45Google Scholar, at p. 333. For an elaboration of the fundamental issues underlying power analysis, i n particular the mistaken conceptualization of power as capability and erroneous analogy between power and money, see Baldwin, David, Paradoxes of Power (New York, 1989)Google Scholar.

¹⁶ There would be ways around this problem with quasi-experimental research designs as well as use of hypothetical counterfactuals. See Fearon, James, ‘Counterfactuals and Hypothesis Testing in Political Science’, World Politics, 43, no. 2 (Jan. 1991), pp. 169–95CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁷ See Keohane, Robert, ‘The Demand for International Regime’, in Krasner, Stephen (ed.), International Regimes (Ithaca, 1983)Google Scholar.

¹⁸ Kuhn, Thomas, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 2nd edn (Chicago, 1962)Google Scholar.

¹⁹ Hirschman, ‘Paradigms’.

²⁰ Ricci, David M., The Tragedy of Political Science (New Haven, 1984), p. 210Google Scholar.

²¹ See R. B. J. Walker, Inside/Outside.

²² Catlin, George, ‘The Function of Political Science’, Western Political Quarterly, 9 (Dec. 1956), pp. 815–25CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at p. 815.

²³ See the criticism of Easton, David, ‘The New Revolution in Political Science’, American Political Science Review (Dec. 1969) pp. 1,051–1,061CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at p. 1,057.

²⁴ See John Ruggie, ‘Multilateralism: The Anatomy of an Institution’, manuscript of the introduction to a forthcoming special issue of International Organization. In the following I base my discussion on the conceptual framework which was adopted for this special issue.

²⁵ See Kennan, George, Memoirs 1925–1950 (Boston, 1950)Google Scholar, ch. 11.

²⁶ Kennan, George, ‘The Sources of Soviet Conduct’, Foreign Affairs, 25 (July 1947), pp. 566–82Google Scholar, reprinted in Paterson, Thomas (ed.), Containment and the Cold War (Reading, 1973), pp. 18–33Google Scholar, quote at p. 33.

²⁷ As quoted in Gaddis, John, Strategies of Containment (New York, 1982), p. 36Google Scholar.

²⁸ One of the first treatises in this vein was Julien, Claude, L'Empire American (Pairs, Bernard Grasset, 1968)Google Scholar; Gilpin, Robert, US Power and the Mullinalional Corporation (New York, Basic Books, 1975)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

²⁹ See e.g. Waltz, Kenneth, ‘International Structure, National Force, and the Balance of World Power’, Journal of International Affairs, 21 (1967), pp. 215–31Google Scholar.

³⁰ Of the many works on this topic 1 quote here only three as examples. Kindleberger, Charles, ‘Dominance and Leadership in the international Economy’, International Studies Quarterly, 25 (June 1981), pp. 242–54CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Robert Gilpin, War and Change; Robert Keohane, ‘The Theory of Hegemonic Stability and Changes in International Economic Regimes 1967–77’, in Holsti, Ole et al., Change in the International System (Boulder, 1980), pp. 131–62Google Scholar.

³¹ See e.g. Keohane's argument in his After Hegemony.

³² See Kindleberger, Charles, The World in Depression 1929–1939 (Berkeley, 1973) p. 28Google Scholar.

³³ This point has been emphasized by Conybeare, John, ‘Public Goods, Prisoners’ Dilemmas, and International Political Economy’, International Studies Quarterly, 28 (1984), pp. 5–22CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³⁴ See Chernoff, Fred, ‘Ending the Cold War: The Soviet Retreat and the US Military Buildup’, International Affairs, 67 (1991), pp. 111–26CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at p. 11 If.

³⁵ Deudney, Daniel and Ikenberry, G. John, ‘The international Sources of Soviet Change’, International Security, 16 (Winter 1991/1992), pp. 74–118CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at p. 81. See also their ‘Soviet Reform and the End of the Cold War: Explaining Large-Scale Historical Change’, Review of International Studies, 17 (1991), pp. 225–50CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³⁶ By institutions 1 simply mean settled practices. While it is common to identify international institutions with specific organizations, such as the UN, GATT, NATO, etc., I consider formal organizations particular subsets of institutions. Such a perspective seems to be more useful for it allows the systematic investigation of a variety of forms of institutionalizing political action.

³⁷ See e.g. Wolf, Christian, his Gentium Methodo Scientifica Perlraclalum (Oxford, 1934)Google Scholar.

³⁸ See e.g. Hedley Bull, ‘The Grotian Conception of International Society’ in Herbert Butterfield and Martin Wight (eds.). Diplomatic Investigations; see also Bull, Hedley, The Anarchical Society (New York, 1977).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

³⁹ Austin, J. L.The Province of Jurisprudence Determined and the Uses of the Studies of Jurisprudence, with an introduction by Hart, H. L. A. (New York, 1954)Google Scholar.

⁴⁰ For an elaboration of this point, see my The Humean Perspective on International Relations (World Order Studies Program, Occasional Paper No. 9) (Princeton, 1981).Google Scholar

⁴¹ Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations. For an early, though problematic, application of this approach to social analysis, see Winch, Peter, The Idea of a Social Science and its Relation to Philosophy (London, 1958)Google Scholar. For a more recent treatment of international relations from this perspective, see Martin Hollis and Smith, Steve, Explaining and Understanding International Relations (Oxford, 1990)Google Scholar, especially chs. 6–9.

⁴² Seminal for this distinction going back to Kant is Rawls, John, ‘Two Concepts of Rules’, Philosophical Review, 64 (1955), pp. 3–52CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also the critical remarks of Anthony Giddens directed at this distinction in this Central Problems of Social Theory (Berkeley, 1979).Google Scholar

⁴³ See my ‘The Protagorean Quest’, and my Rules, Norms, and Decisions: On the Conditions of Practical and Legal Reasoning in International Relations and Domestic Affairs (Cambridge, 1989)Google Scholar, chs. 3 and 4.

⁴⁴ See Coplin, William, ‘International Law and Assumptions about the State System’, World Politics, 17 (Oct. 1964), pp. 615–35CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁴⁵ See Wendt, Alexander, ‘The Agent-Structure Problem’, International Organization, 41 (1987), pp. 335–70CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Dessler, David, ‘What is at Stake in the Agent-Structure Debate?’ International Organization, 42 (1989), pp. 441–74CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁴⁶ On this point, see my Rules, Norms and Decisions, ch. 6.

⁴⁷ Polanyi, Karl, The Great Transformation: The Political and Economic Origins of Our Time (Boston, 1957).Google Scholar

⁴⁸ It is insufficient to merely ‘bring the state back in’. Rather, what is necessary is a fundamental examination of the state, market and society, as spheres of action. On this point see, Mitchell, Timothy, ‘The Limits of the State’, American Political Science Review, 85 (March 1991), pp. 77–96Google Scholar.

⁴⁹ On this point see John Ruggie, ‘Finding our Feet in Territorially’, mimeo, 1990.

⁵⁰ Gulick, Edward, Europe's Classical Balance of Power (New York, 1967)Google Scholar.

⁵¹ On this point, see my ‘On the Notion of Interest in International Relations’, International Organization, 36(1982), pp. 1–30CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁵² Mcarsheimer, John, ‘Back to the Future: Instability in Europe After the Cold War’, International Security, 15, no. 1 (Summer 1990), pp. 5–56CrossRefGoogle Scholar.