Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-xtgtn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-24T22:02:11.848Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Implicit learning in individuals with autism spectrum disorders: a meta-analysis

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  15 August 2014

F. Foti ,
F. De Crescenzo ,
G. Vivanti ,
D. Menghini  and
S. Vicari
F. Foti*
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, ‘Sapienza’ University of Rome, Italy IRCCS Santa Lucia Foundation, Rome, Italy
F. De Crescenzo
Affiliation:
Child Neuropsychiatry Unit, Neuroscience Department, ‘Children's Hospital Bambino Gesu’, Rome, Italy
G. Vivanti
Affiliation:
Olga Tennison Autism Research Centre, School of Psychological Science, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia Victorian Autism Specific Early Learning and Care Centre, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
D. Menghini
Affiliation:
Child Neuropsychiatry Unit, Neuroscience Department, ‘Children's Hospital Bambino Gesu’, Rome, Italy
S. Vicari
Affiliation:
Child Neuropsychiatry Unit, Neuroscience Department, ‘Children's Hospital Bambino Gesu’, Rome, Italy
*
*Address for correspondence: Dr F. Foti, Department of Psychology, ‘Sapienza’ University of Rome, Via dei Marsi 78, 00185 Rome, Italy. (Email: francesca.foti@uniroma1.it)
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Background.

Individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) are characterized by social communication difficulties and behavioural rigidity. Difficulties in learning from others are one of the most devastating features of this group of conditions. Nevertheless, the nature of learning difficulties in ASDs is still unclear. Given the relevance of implicit learning for social and communicative functioning, a link has been hypothesized between ASDs and implicit learning deficit. However, studies that have employed formal testing of implicit learning in ASDs provided mixed results.

Method.

We undertook a systematic search of studies that examined implicit learning in ASDs using serial reaction time (SRT), alternating serial reaction time (ASRT), pursuit rotor (PR), and contextual cueing (CC) tasks, and synthesized the data using meta-analysis. A total of 11 studies were identified, representing data from 407 individuals with ASDs and typically developing comparison participants.

Results.

The results indicate that individuals with ASDs do not differ in any task considered [SRT and ASRT task: standardized mean difference (SMD) −0.18, 95% confidence interval (CI) −0.71 to 0.36; PR task: SMD −0.34, 95% CI −1.04 to 0.36; CC task: SMD 0.27, 95% CI −0.07 to 0.60].

Conclusions.

Based on our synthesis of the existing literature, we conclude that individuals with ASDs can learn implicitly, supporting the hypothesis that implicit learning deficits do not represent a core feature in ASDs.

Keywords

ASDsimplicit learningmeta-analysisprocedural learning
Type
Review Articles
Information
Psychological Medicine , Volume 45 , Issue 5 , April 2015 , pp. 897 - 910
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2014 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Alcock, K (2006). The development of oral motor control and language. Down's Syndrome, Research and Practice 11, 1–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Allen, G, Müller, RA, Courchesne, E (2004). Cerebellar function in autism: functional magnetic resonance image activation during a simple motor task. Biological Psychiatry 56, 269–278.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
APA (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edn (DSM-5). American Psychiatric Publishing: Arlington, VA.Google Scholar
Baddelely, AD (2002). The psychology of memory. In The Handbook of Memory Disorders (ed. Baddelely, A.D., Kopelman, M.D. and Wilson, B.A.), pp. 3–15. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd: Chichester, UK.Google Scholar
* Barnes, KA, Howard, DV, Howard, JH, Gilotty, L, Kenworthy, L, Gaillard, WD, Vaidya, CJ (2008). Intact implicit learning of spatial context and temporal sequences in childhood autism spectrum disorder. Neuropsychlogy 22, 563–570.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berridge, KC, Winkielman, P (2003). What is an unconscious emotion: the case for unconscious ‘liking’. Cognition and Emotion 17, 181–211.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bishop, DV (2002). Motor immaturity and specific speech and language impairment: evidence for a common genetic basis. American Journal of Medical Genetics 114, 56–63.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boucher, J, Bowler, DM (2008). Memory in Autism: Theory and Evidence. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bowler, DM, Gardiner, JM, Gaigg, SB (2007). Factors affecting conscious awareness in the recollective experience of adults with Asperger's syndrome. Consciousness and Cognition 16, 124–143.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
* Brown, J, Aczél, B, Jiménez, L, Kaufman, SB, Plaisted-Grant, K (2010). Intact implicit learning in autism spectrum conditions. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 63, 1789–1812.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chun, MM, Jiang, Y (1998). Contextual cueing: implicit learning and memory of visual context guides spatial attention. Cognitive Psychology 36, 28–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cleeremans, A, Dienes, Z (2008). Computational models of implicit learning. In Cambridge Handbook of Computational Psychology (ed. Sun, R.), pp. 396–421. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK.Google Scholar
Cohen, J (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin 112, 155–159.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Courchesne, E, Saitoh, O, Yeung-Courchesne, R, Press, GA, Lincoln, AJ, Haas, RH, Schreibman, L (1994). Abnormality of cerebellar vermian lobules VI and VII in patients with infantile autism: identification of hypoplastic and hyperplastic subgroups with MR imaging. American Journal of Roentgenology 162, 123–130.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Courchesne, E, Yeung-Courchesne, R, Press, GA, Hesselink, JR, Jernigan, TL (1988). Hypoplasia of cerebellar vermal lobules VI and VII in autism. New England Journal of Medicine 318, 1349–1354.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
D'Cruz, AM, Mosconi, MW, Steele, S, Rubin, LH, Luna, B, Minshew, N, Sweeney, JA (2009). Lateralized response timing deficits in autism. Biological Psychiatry 66, 393–397.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DerSimonian, R, Laird, N (1986). Meta-analysis in clinical trials. Controlled Clinical Trials 7, 177–188.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Destrebecqz, A, Cleeremans, A (2001). Can sequence learning be implicit? New evidence with the process dissociation procedure. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review 8, 343–350.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Destrebecqz, A, Cleeremans, A (2003). Temporal effects in sequence learning. In Attention and Implicit Learning (ed. Jiménez, L.), pp. 181–213. John Benjamins Publishing Company: Amsterdam, Netherlands.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eslinger, P, Damasio, AR (1986). Preserved motor learning in Alzheimer's disease: implications for anatomy and behavior. Journal of Neuroscience 6, 3006–3009.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gabrieli, JD, Stebbins, GT, Singh, J, Willingham, DB, Goetz, CG (1997). Intact mirror-tracing and impaired rotary pursuit skill learning in patients with Huntington's disease: evidence for dissociable memory systems in skill learning. Neuropsychology 11, 272–281.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
* Gidley Larson, JC, Mostofsky, SH (2008). Evidence that the pattern of visuomotor sequence learning is altered in children with autism. Autism Research 1, 341–353.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goh, S, Peterson, BS (2012). Imaging evidence for disturbances in multiple learning and memory systems in persons with autism spectrum disorders. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 54, 208–213.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
* Gordon, B, Stark, S (2007). Procedural learning of a visual sequence in individuals with autism. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities 22, 14–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gras-Vincendon, A, Bursztejn, C, Danion, JM (2008). Functioning of memory in subjects with autism. Encephale 34, 550–556.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hashimoto, T, Tayama, M, Miyazaki, M, Murakawa, K, Kuroda, Y (1993). Brainstem and cerebellar vermis involvement in autistic children. Journal of Child Neurology 8, 149–153.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hayward, DA, Shore, DI, Ristic, J, Kovshoff, H, Iarocci, G, Mottron, L, Burack, JA (2012). Flexible visual processing in young adults with autism: the effects of implicit learning on a global-local task. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 42, 2383–2392.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hedges, LV, Olkin, I (1985). Statistical Methods for Meta-Analysis. Academic Press: Orlando, FL.Google Scholar
Heindel, W, Salmon, D, Shults, C, Walicke, P, Butters, N (1989). Neuropsychological evidence for multiple implicit memory systems: a comparison of Alzheimer's, Huntington's, and Parkinson's disease patients. Journal of Neuroscience 9, 582–587.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Higgins, JP, Thompson, SG, Deeks, JJ, Altman, DG (2003). Measuring inconsistency in meta-analyses. British Medical Journal 327, 557–560.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Higgins, JPT, Green, S (eds) (updated March 2011). Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions. Version 5.1.0 The Cochrane Collaboration, 2011 (http://www.cochrane-handbook.org).Google Scholar
Hodge, SM, Makris, N, Kennedy, DN, Caviness, VS Jr., Howard, J, McGrath, L, Steele, S, Frazier, JA, Tager-Flusberg, H, Harris, GJ (2010). Cerebellum, language, and cognition in autism and specific language impairment. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 40, 300–316.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Howlin, P (2005). Health care and the autism spectrum. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 98, 382.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Inui, N, Suzuki, K (1998). Practice and serial reaction time of adolescents with autism. Perceptual and Motor Skills 86, 403–410.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jacobs, DH, Adair, JC, Williamson, DJ, Na, DL, Gold, M, Foundas, AL, Shuren, JE, Cibula, JE, Heilman, KM (1999). Apraxia and motor-skill acquisition in Alzheimer's disease are dissociable. Neuropsychologia 37, 875–880.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jiang, Y, Chun, MM (2001). Selective attention modulates implicit learning. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. A, Human Experimental Psychology 54, 1105–1124.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaufmann, WE, Cooper, KL, Mostofsky, SH, Capone, GT, Kates, WR, Newschaffer, CJ, Bukelis, I, Stump, MH, Jann, AE, Lanham, DC (2003). Specificity of cerebellar vermian abnormalities in autism: a quantitative magnetic resonance imaging study. Journal of Child Neurology 18, 463–470.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Klin, A, Jones, W, Schultz, RT (2003). The inactive mind, or from actions to cognition: lessons from autism. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B 358, 345–360.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Knowlton, BJ, Mangels, JA, Squire, LR (1996). A neostriatal habit learning system in humans. Science 273, 1399–1402.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kourkoulou, A, Kuhn, G, Findlay, JM, Leekam, SR (2013). Eye movement difficulties in autism spectrum disorder: implications for implicit contextual learning. Autism Research 6, 177–189.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
* Kourkoulou, A, Leekam, SR, Findlay, JM (2012). Implicit learning of local context in autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 42, 244–256.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kramvis, I, Mansvelder, HD, Loos, M, Meredith, R (2013). Hyperactivity, perseveration and increased responding during attentional rule acquisition in the Fragile X mouse model. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience 7, 172.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lewis, M, Kim, SJ (2009). The pathophysiology of restricted repetitive behavior. Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders 1, 114–132.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lieberman, MD (2000). Intuition: a social cognitive neuroscience approach. Psychological Bulletin 126, 109–137.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
* Limoges, É, Bolduc, C, Berthiaume, C, Mottron, L, Godbout, R (2013). Relationship between poor sleep and daytime cognitive performance in young adults with autism. Research in Developmental Disabilities 34, 1322–1335.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lind, S, Bowler, D (2008). Episodic memory and autonoetic consciousness in autistic spectrum disorders: the roles of self-awareness, representational abilities and temporal cognition. In Memory in Autism: Theory and Evidence, 1st edn (ed. Boucher, J. and Bowler, D.), pp. 166–187. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lord, R, Hulme, C (1988). Patterns of rotary pursuit performance in clumsy and normal children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 29, 691–701.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lord, C, Rutter, M, Le-Couteur, A (1994). Autism diagnostic interview-revised: a revised version of a diagnostic interview for caregivers of individuals with possible pervasive developmental disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 24, 659–685.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lord, C, Rutter, M, Goode, S, Heemsbergen, J, Jordan, H, Mawhood, L, Schopler, E (1989). Autism diagnostic observation schedule: a standardized observation of communicative and social behavior. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 19, 185–212.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Martins, GJ, Shahrokh, M, Powell, EM (2011). Genetic disruption of Met signaling impairs GABAergic striatal development and cognition. Neuroscience 176, 199–209.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mayo, J, Eigsti, IM (2012). Brief report: a comparison of statistical learning in school-aged children with high functioning autism and typically developing peers. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 42, 2476–2485.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McTighe, SM, Neal, SJ, Lin, Q, Hughes, ZA, Smith, DG (2013). The BTBR mouse model of autism spectrum disorders has learning and attentional impairments and alterations in acetylcholine and kynurenic acid in prefrontal cortex. PLoS ONE 8, e62189.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Molinari, M, Leggio, MG, Solida, A, Ciorra, R, Misciagna, S, Silveri, MC, Petrosini, L (1997). Cerebellum and procedural learning: evidence from focal cerebellar lesions. Brain 120, 1753–1762.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mosconi, MW, Kay, M, D'Cruz, AM, Guter, S, Kapur, K, Macmillan, C, Stanford, LD, Sweeney, JA (2010). Neurobehavioral abnormalities in first-degree relatives of individuals with autism. Archives of General Psychiatry 67, 830–840.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
* Mostofsky, SH, Goldberg, MC, Landa, RJ, Denckla, MB (2000). Evidence for a deficit in procedural learning in children and adolescents with autism: implications for cerebellar contribution. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 6, 752–759.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
* Müller, RA, Cauich, C, Rubio, MA, Mizuno, A, Courchesne, E (2004). Abnormal activity patterns in premotor cortex during sequence learning in autistic patients. Biological Psychiatry 56, 323–332.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Müller, RA, Kleinhans, N, Kemmotsu, N, Pierce, K, Courchesne, E (2003). Abnormal variability and distribution of functional maps in autism: an FMRI study of visuomotor learning. American Journal of Psychiatry 160, 1847–1862.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Müller, RA, Pierce, K, Ambrose, JB, Allen, G, Courchesne, E (2001). Atypical patterns of cerebral motor activation in autism: a functional magnetic resonance study. Biological Psychiatry 49, 665–676.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Muslimovic, D, Post, B, Speelman, JD, Schmand, B (2007). Motor procedural learning in Parkinson's disease. Brain 130, 2887–2897.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
* Nemeth, D, Janacsek, K, Balogh, V, Londe, Z, Mingesz, R, Fazekas, M, Jambori, S, Danyi, I, Vetro, A. (2010). Learning in autism: implicitly superb. PLoS ONE 5, e11731.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Niedenthal, P (1990). Implicit Perception of Affective Information. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 26, 505–527.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nissen, MJ, Bullemer, P (1987). Attentional requirements of learning: evidence from performance measures. Cognitive Psychology 19, 1–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nuske, H, Vivanti, G, Dissanayake, C (2013). Are emotion impairments unique to, universal, or specific in autism spectrum disorder? A comprehensive review. Cognition and Emotion 27, 1042–1061.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O'Riordan, MA, Plaisted, KC, Driver, J, Baron-Cohen, S (2001). Superior visual search in autism. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Human Perception and Performance 27, 719–730.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Perruchet, P, Pacton, S (2006). Implicit learning and staticial learning: one phenomenon, two approaches. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 10, 233–238.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pring, L (2005). Savant talent. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 47, 500–503.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Quenouille, M (1949). Approximate tests of correlation in time series. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series B 11, 68–84.Google Scholar
Reber, PJ (2013). The neural basis of implicit learning and memory: a review of neuropsychological and neuroimaging research. Neuropsychologia 51, 2026–2042.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Relkovic, D, Doe, CM, Humby, T, Johnstone, KA, Resnick, JL, Holland, AJ, Hagan, JJ, Wilkinson, LS, Isles, AR (2010). Behavioural and cognitive abnormalities in an imprinting centre deletion mouse model for Prader-Willi syndrome. European Journal of Neuroscience 31, 156–164.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Renner, P, Klinger, LG, Klinger, MR (2000). Implicit and explicit memory in autism: is autism an amnesic disorder? Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 30, 3–14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rogers, TD, McKimm, E, Dickson, PE, Goldowitz, D, Blaha, CD, Mittleman, G (2013). Is autism a disease of the cerebellum? An integration of clinical and pre-clinical research. Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience 7, 15. doi: 10.3389/fnsys.2013.00015.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosenthal, R, DiMatteo, MR (2001). Meta-analysis: recent developments in quantitative methods for literature reviews. Annual Review of Psychology 52, 59–82.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roth, R, Baribeau, J, Milovan, D, O'Conner, K, Todorov, C (2004). Procedural and declarative memory in obsessive–compulsive disorder. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 10, 647–654.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sahyoun, CP, Belliveau, JW, Soulières, I, Schwartz, S, Mody, M (2010). Neuroimaging of the functional and structural networks underlying visuospatial vs. linguistic reasoning in high-functioning autism. Neuropsychologia 48, 86–95.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Salmond, CH, Ashburner, J, Connelly, A, Friston, KJ, Gadian, DG, Vargha-Khadem, F (2005). The role of the medial temporal lobe in autistic spectrum disorders. European Journal of Neuroscience 22, 764–772.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schmahmann, JD (2004). Disorders of the cerebellum: ataxia, dysmetria of thought, and the cerebellar cognitive affective syndrome. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences 16, 367–378.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schmahmann, JD, Sherman, JC (1998). The cerebellar cognitive affective syndrome. Brain 121, 561–579.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scott-Van Zeeland, AA, Dapretto, M, Ghahremani, DG, Poldrack, RA, Bookheimer, SY (2010). Reward processing in autism. Autism Research 3, 53–67.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seger, CA (1997). Two forms of sequential implicit learning. Consciousness and Cognition 6, 108–131.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seger, CA (1994). Implicit learning. Psychological Bulletin 115, 163–196.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seger, CA (1998). Multiple forms of implicit learning. In Handbook of Implicit Learning (ed. Stadler, M.A. and Frensch, P.A.), pp. 295–320. Sage Publications: Thousand Oaks, CA.Google Scholar
Shanks, DR, Rowland, LA, Ranger, MS (2005). Attentional load and implicit sequence learning. Psychological Research 69, 369–382.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Siegert, RJ, Taylor, KD, Weatherall, M, Abernethy, DA (2006). Is implicit sequence learning impaired in Parkinson's disease? A meta-analysis. Neuropsychology 20, 490–495.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smith, JG, McDowall, J (2006). The implicit sequence learning deficit in patients with Parkinson's disease: a matter of impaired sequence integration? Neuropsychologia 44, 275–288.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Squire, LR (1994). Declarative and nondeclarative memory: multiple brain systems supporting learning and memory. In Memory Systems 1994 (ed. Schacter, D.L. and Tulving, E.), pp. 203–231. MIT Press: Cambridge, Massachusetts.Google Scholar
Squire, LR (2004). Memory systems of the brain: a brief history and current perspective. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory 82, 171–177.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
* Travers, BG, Klinger, MR, Mussey, JL, Klinger, LG (2010). Motor-linked implicit learning in persons with autism spectrum disorders. Autism Research 3, 68–77.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
* Travers, BG, Powell, PS, Mussey, JL, Klinger, LG, Crisler, ME, Klinger, MR (2013). Spatial and identity cues differentially affect implicit contextual cueing in adolescents and adults with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 43, 2393–2404.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Trent, S, Dean, R, Veit, B, Cassano, T, Bedse, G, Ojarikre, OA, Humby, T, Davies, W (2013) Biological mechanisms associated with increased perseveration and hyperactivity in a genetic mouse model of neurodevelopmental disorder. Psychoneuroendocrinology 38, 1370–1380.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tukey, JW (1958). Bias and confidence in not quite large samples. Annals of Mathematical Statistics 29, 614.Google Scholar
Ullman, MT (2004). Contributions of memory circuits to language: the declarative/procedural model. Cognition 92, 231–270.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ullman, MT (2001). The declarative/procedural model of lexicon and grammar. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research 30, 37–69.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ungerleider, LG, Doyon, J, Karni, A (2002). Imaging brain plasticity during motor skill learning. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory 78, 553–564.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Gorp, WG, Altshuler, L, Theberge, DC, Mintz, J (1999). Declarative and procedural memory in bipolar disorder. Biological Psychiatry 46, 525–531.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vivanti, G, Barbaro, J, Hudry, K, Dissanayake, C, Prior, M (2013). Intellectual development in autism spectrum disorders: new insights from longitudinal studies. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 7, 354.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vivanti, G, Dissanayake, C (2014). Propensity to imitate in autism is not modulated by the model's gaze direction: an eye-tracking study. Autism Research 7, 392–399.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vivanti, G, Hamilton, A (2014). Imitation in Autism Spectrum Disorders. In The Handbook of Autism and Developmental Disorders (ed. Volkmar, F., Paul, R., Rogers, S. and Pelphrey, K.), pp. 278–301. Wiley: New York.Google Scholar
Vivanti, G, Rogers, SJ (2014). Autism and the mirror neuron system: insights from learning and teaching. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences 369, 20130184.Google ScholarPubMed
Vivanti, G, Trembath, D, Dissanayake, C (2014). Mechanisms of Imitation Impairment in Autism Spectrum Disorder. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology. Published online: 16 April 2014. doi: 10.1007/s10802-014-9874-9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Walenski, M, Tager-Flusberg, H, Ullman, MT (2006). Language in autism. In Understanding Autism: From Basic Neuroscience to Treatment (ed. , S. , Moldin and Rubenstein, J.), pp. 175–203. Taylor & Francis Books: Boca Raton, FL.Google Scholar
Ward, H, Shum, D, Wallace, G, Boon, J (2002). Pediatric traumatic brain injury and procedural memory. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 24, 458–470.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Whiting, P, Rutjes, AW, Reitsma, JB, Bossuyt, PM, Kleijnen, J (2003). The development of QUADAS: atool for the quality assessment of studies of diagnostic accuracy included in systematic Reviews. BMC Medical Research Methodology 3, 25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Willingham, DB, Wells, LA, Farrell, JM, Stemwedel, ME (2000). Implicit motor sequence learning is represented in response locations. Memory and Cognition 28, 366–375.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Witt, K, Nühsman, A, Deuschl, G (2002). Intact artificial grammar learning in patients with cerebellar degeneration and advanced Parkinson's disease. Neuropsychologia 40, 1534–1540.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Supplementary material: File

Foti Supplementary Material

Appendix

Download Foti Supplementary Material(File)
File 14.5 KB