Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-wq2xx Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-18T15:54:10.469Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Anxious and Active: Muslim Perception of Discrimination and Treatment and its Political Consequences in the Post-September 11, 2001 United States

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 November 2010

Farida Jalalzai
Farida Jalalzai*
Affiliation:
University of Missouri, St. Louis
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Farida Jalalzai, Department of Political Science, University of Missouri, One University Blvd., St. Louis, MO 63121-4499. E-mail: jalalzaif@umsl.edu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Utilizing both quantitative and qualitative analysis, this article assesses discrimination and anxiety among Muslims in the post-September 11, 2001 United States. Substantial portions of Muslim-Americans are indeed anxious and report personal and group discrimination. However, this is guided by many factors including religious salience, age, education, political attentiveness, native born status, and years lived in the United States. Respondents who are more anxious and know victims of religious discrimination are also more active in politics. However, personal experiences with discrimination are unrelated to political participation. Overall, in spite of or perhaps because of anxiety over their present status, Muslim-Americans are highly functional in the political sphere. Many are now more active in politics than prior to September 11, 2001.

Type
Articles
Information
Politics and Religion , Volume 4 , Issue 1 , April 2011 , pp. 71 - 107
Copyright
Copyright © Religion and Politics Section of the American Political Science Association 2010

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Abdo, Geneive. 2006. Mecca and Main Street: Muslim Life in America after 9/11. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Afridi, Samuel. 2001. Muslims in America: Identity, Diversity, and the Challenge of Understanding. New York, NY: Carnegie Corporation.Google Scholar
Ali, Syed. 2005. “Why Here, Why Now? Young Muslim Women Wearing Hijab.” The Muslim World 95: 515–530.Google Scholar
Ansari, Zafar Ishaq. 2004. “Islam among African Americans: An Overview.” In Muslims' Place in the American Public Square: Hopes, Fears, and Aspirations, eds. Bukhari, et al. New York, NY: Altamira Press, 222–267.Google Scholar
Ayers, John W., and Hofstetter, C. Richard. 2008. “American Muslim Political Participation Following 9/11: Religious Belief, Political Resources, Social Structures and Political Awareness.” Politics and Religion 1:3–26.Google Scholar
Bagby, Ihsan. 2004. A Portrait of Detroit Mosques: Muslim Views on Policy, Politics, and Religion. Clinton, MI: Institute for Social Policy and Understanding.Google Scholar
Banerjee, Rupa. 2006. “An Examination of Factors Affecting Perception of Workplace Discrimination. http://74.125.95.132/search?q=cache:99ON-TxROecJ:www.cira-acri.ca/docs/workingpapers/StudentPerceptions%2520of%2520Workplace%2520Discrimination_Banerjee_081506.pdf+Banerjee,+Rupa.+2006.+%E2%80%9CAn+Examination+of+Factors+Affecting+Perception+of+Workplace+Discrimination&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=1&gl=us (Accessed on).Google Scholar
Ba-Yunus, Ilyas, and Kone, Kassim. 2004. “Muslim Americans: A Demographic Report.” In Muslims' Place in the American Public Square: Hopes, Fears, and Aspirations, eds. Bukhari, et al. New York, NY: Altamira Press. 299–321.Google Scholar
Berinsky, Adam J. 2002. “Silent Voices: Social Welfare Policy Opinions and Political Equality in America.” American Journal of Political Science 46:276–288.Google Scholar
Bobo, Lawrence, and Johnson, Devon. 2000. “Racial Attitudes in the Prismatic Metropolis: Identity, Stereotypes, and Perceived Group Competition in Los Angeles.” In Prismatic Metropolis: Inequality in Los Angeles, eds. Bobo, L. D., Oliver, M. L., Johnson, J. H., and Valenzuela, A.. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation, 83–166.Google Scholar
Cainkar, Louise. 2002. “No Longer Invisible: Arab and Muslim Exclusion after September 11.” Middle East Report 224:22–29.Google Scholar
Colic-Peisker, Val. 2005. “At Least You're the Right Colour: Identity and Social Inclusion of Bosnian Refugees in Australia.” Journal of Ethnic & Migration Studies 31:615–638.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Conway, M. Margaret, Steuernagel, Gertrude A., and Ahern, David W.. 2005. Women and Political Participation and Cultural Change in the Political Arena. Washington, DC. CQ Press.Google Scholar
Crocker, Jennifer, and Major, B.. 1989. “Social Stigma.” Psychological Review 96:608–630.Google Scholar
Dalton, Russell. 2009. The Good Citizen. Washington, DC: CQ Press.Google Scholar
Esposito, John L. 2004. Islam the Straight Path. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Farley, Reynolds. 1996. “Racial Differences in the Search for Housing: Do Whites and Blacks Use the Same Techniques to Find Housing?” Housing Policy Debate 7:367–385.Google Scholar
Forman, Tyrone A., Williams, David R., and Jackson, James S.. 1997. “Race, Place, and Discrimination.” Perspectives on Social Problems 9:231–261.Google Scholar
Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck, and Lummis, Adair T.. 1987. Islamic Values in the United States: A Comparative Study. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck. 1991. The Muslims of America. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck. 1998. “The Dynamics of Islamic Identity in North America.” In Muslims on the Americanization Path? eds. Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck and Esposito, John L.. Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press, 21–56.Google Scholar
Jackson, Sherman A. 2004. “Preliminary Reflections on Islam and Black Religion.” In the American Public Square: Hopes, Fears, and Aspirations, eds. Bukhari, et al. New York, NY: Altamira Press, 201–221.Google Scholar
Jalalzai, Farida. 2009. “The Political Behavior of Muslims in the United States.” Politics & Religion 2:163–199.Google Scholar
Jamal, Amaney. 2005. “The Political Participation and Engagement of Muslim Americans: Mosque Involvement and Group Consciousness.” American Politics Research 33:521–544.Google Scholar
Kessler, Ronald C., Mickelson, Kristin D., and Williams, David R.. 1999. “The Prevalence, Distribution, and Mental Health Correlates of Perceived Discrimination in the United States.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior 40:208–230.Google Scholar
Khalidi, Omar. 2004. “Living as a Muslim in a Pluralistic Society and State: Theory and Experience.” In The American Public Square: Hopes, Fears, and Aspirations, eds. Bukhari, et al. New York, NY: Altamira Press, 38–83.Google Scholar
Khan, Mohommed A. Muqtedar. 1998. “Muslims and Identity Politics in America.” In Muslims on the Americanization Path? eds. Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck and Esposito, John L.. Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press, 107–125.Google Scholar
Khan, Mohommed A. Muqtedar. 2002. American Muslims, Bridging Faith and Freedom. Beltsville, MA: Amana.Google Scholar
Kim, Jennifer, Kourosh, Naseem, Huckerby, Jayne, Leins, Koby, and Narula, Smita. 2007. “Americans on Hold: Profiling, Citizenship, and the War on Terror.” http://www.chrgj.org/docs/AOH/AmericansonHoldReport.pdf (Accessed on February 5, 2009).Google Scholar
Leonard, Karen. 2001. “American Muslim Politics.” Ethnicities 3:147–181.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leonard, Karen. 2003. Muslims in the U.S: The State of Research. New York, NY: Russell Sage.Google Scholar
Marcus, George E., Neuman, W. Russell, and MacKuen, Michael. 2000. Affective Intelligence and Political Judgment. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago.Google Scholar
McCloud, Aminah Beverly. 2003. “Islam in America: The Mosaic.” In Religion and Immigration: Christian, Jewish, and Muslim Experiences in the United States, eds. Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck, Smith, Jane I., and Esposito, John L., 159–174.Google Scholar
McCloud, Aminah Beverly. 2004. “Conceptual Discourse: Living as a Muslim in a Pluralistic Society.” In Muslims' Place in the American Public Square, eds. Bukhari, et al. New York, NY: Altamira Press, 73–83.Google Scholar
Nimer, Mohammed. 2004. “Muslims in the American Body Politic.” In Muslims' Place in the American Public Square, eds. Bukhari, Zahid H., Nyang, Sulayman S., Ahmad, Mumtaz, and Esposito, John L.. New York, NY: Altamira Press, 145–164.Google Scholar
RamakrishnanKarthick, S. Karthick, S., and Espenshade, Thomas J.. 2001. “Immigrant Incorporation and Political Participation in the United States.” International Migration Review 35:870–909.Google Scholar
Reitz, Jeff, and Banerjee, Rupa. 2005. “Racial Inequality and Social Cohesion in Canada: Findings from the Ethnic Diversity Survey.” Paper presented at Canadian Ethnic Studies Meeting. Ottawa, Ontario.Google Scholar
Rosenstone, Steven J., and Hansen, John Mark. 1993. Mobilization, Participation, and Democracy. New York, NY: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Ruggiero, Karen M. 1999. “The Personal/Group Discrimination Discrepancy: Extending Allport's Analysis of Targets.” Journal of Social Issues. 55:519–536.Google Scholar
Sears, David O., Fu, Mingying, Henry, P.J., and Bui, Kerr. 2003. “The Origins and Persistence of Ethnic Identity Among the ‘New Immigrant’ Groups.” Social Psychology Quarterly 66:419–437.Google Scholar
Sears, David O., Hetts, John J., Sidanius, Jim, and Bobo, Lawrence, eds. 2000. Racialized Politics: The Debate About Racism in America. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Sellers, Robert M., and Shelton, J. Nicole. 2003. “The Role of Racial Identity in Perceived Racial Discrimination.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 84:1075–1092.Google Scholar
Smith, Jane I. 1999. Islam in America. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Smith, Jane I. 2007. Muslims, Christians, and the Challenge of Interfaith Dialogue. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, Tom W. 2002. “The Muslim Population of the United States: the Methodology of Estimates.” Public Opinion Quarterly 66:404–417.Google Scholar
Stone, Carol. 1991. “Estimate of Muslims Living in America.” In Muslims of America, ed. Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 25–36.Google Scholar
Suleiman, Michael. 1999. “Islam, Muslims and Middle-Easterners in America: The Other of the Other of the Other.” Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 19:33–47.Google Scholar
Tajfel, Henri, and Turner, John C.. 1979. “An Integrative Theory of Intergroup Conflict.” In Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations, eds. Austin, W. G. and Worchel, S.. Monterey, CA: Brooks-Cole.Google Scholar
Taylor, Donald M., Wright, Stephen C., and Ruggiero, Karen M.. 2001. “The Personal/Group Discrimination Discrepancy: Responses to Experimentally Induced Personal and Group Discrimination.” The Journal of Social Psychology 121:847–858.Google Scholar
Verb, Sidney, Schlozman, Kay L., and Brady, Henry E.. 1995. Voice and Equality: Civic Voluntarism in American Politics. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Wald, Kenneth D., Kellstedt, Lyman A., and Leege, David C.. 1993. “Church Involvement and Political Behavior.” In Rediscovering the Religious Factor in American Politics, eds. Leege, David C. and Kellstedt, Lyman A.. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe.Google Scholar
Wormser, Richard. 1994. American Islam. New York, NY: Walker & Company.Google Scholar
Wuthnow, R. 1999. “Mobilizing Civic Engagement: The Changing Impact of Religious Involvement.” In Civic Engagement in American Democracy, eds. Skocpol, T. and Fiorina, M.. New York, NY: Russell Sage, 331–365.Google Scholar