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Volume 28 - Issue 4 - July 2022

Natural Language Engineering Volume 28 - Issue 4 -
Contents

Article

  • TNT-KID: Transformer-based neural tagger for keyword identification
  • Matej Martinc, Blaž Škrlj, Senja Pollak
  • Published online by Cambridge University Press: 10 June 2021, pp. 409-448
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    With growing amounts of available textual data, development of algorithms capable of automatic analysis, categorization, and summarization of these data has become a necessity. In this research, we present a novel algorithm for keyword identification, that is, an extraction of one or multiword phrases representing key aspects of a given document, called Transformer-Based Neural Tagger for Keyword IDentification (TNT-KID). By adapting the transformer architecture for a specific task at hand and leveraging language model pretraining on a domain-specific corpus, the model is capable of overcoming deficiencies of both supervised and unsupervised state-of-the-art approaches to keyword extraction by offering competitive and robust performance on a variety of different datasets while requiring only a fraction of manually labeled data required by the best-performing systems. This study also offers thorough error analysis with valuable insights into the inner workings of the model and an ablation study measuring the influence of specific components of the keyword identification workflow on the overall performance.

  • Automated evaluation of the quality of ideas in compositions based on concept maps
  • Li-Ping Yang, Tao Xin, Fang Luo, Sheng Zhang, Xue-Tao Tian
  • Published online by Cambridge University Press: 24 May 2021, pp. 449-486
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    Nowadays, automated essay evaluation (AEE) systems play an important role in evaluating essays and have been successfully used in large-scale writing assessments. However, existing AEE systems mostly focus on grammar or shallow content measurements rather than higher-order traits such as ideas. This paper proposes a new formulation of graph-based features for concept maps using word embeddings to evaluate the quality of ideas for Chinese compositions. The concept map derived from the student’s composition is composed of the concepts appearing in the essay and the co-occurrence relationship between the concepts. By utilizing real compositions written by eighth-grade students from a large-scale assessment, the scoring accuracy of the computer evaluation system (named AECC-I: Automated Evaluation for Chinese Compositions—Ideas) is higher than the baselines. The results indicate that the proposed method deepens the construct-relevant coverage of automatic ideas evaluation in compositions and that it can provide constructive feedback for students.

  • Automatic question generation based on sentence structure analysis using machine learning approach
  • Miroslav Blšták, Viera Rozinajová
  • Published online by Cambridge University Press: 17 June 2021, pp. 487-517
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    Automatic question generation is one of the most challenging tasks of Natural Language Processing. It requires “bidirectional” language processing: first, the system has to understand the input text (Natural Language Understanding), and it then has to generate questions also in the form of text (Natural Language Generation). In this article, we introduce our framework for generating the factual questions from unstructured text in the English language. It uses a combination of traditional linguistic approaches based on sentence patterns with several machine learning methods. We first obtain lexical, syntactic and semantic information from an input text, and we then construct a hierarchical set of patterns for each sentence. The set of features is extracted from the patterns, and it is then used for automated learning of new transformation rules. Our learning process is totally data-driven because the transformation rules are obtained from a set of initial sentence–question pairs. The advantages of this approach lie in a simple expansion of new transformation rules which allows us to generate various types of questions and also in the continuous improvement of the system by reinforcement learning. The framework also includes a question evaluation module which estimates the quality of generated questions. It serves as a filter for selecting the best questions and eliminating incorrect ones or duplicates. We have performed several experiments to evaluate the correctness of generated questions, and we have also compared our system with several state-of-the-art systems. Our results indicate that the quality of generated questions outperforms the state-of-the-art systems and our questions are also comparable to questions created by humans. We have also created and published an interface with all created data sets and evaluated questions, so it is possible to follow up on our work.

Emerging Trends

  • Emerging trends: General fine-tuning (gft)
  • Kenneth Ward Church, Xingyu Cai, Yibiao Ying, Zeyu Chen, Guangxu Xun, Yuchen Bian
  • Published online by Cambridge University Press: 23 May 2022, pp. 519-535
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    This paper describes gft (general fine-tuning), a little language for deep nets, introduced at an ACL-2022 tutorial. gft makes deep nets accessible to a broad audience including non-programmers. It is standard practice in many fields to use statistics packages such as R. One should not need to know how to program in order to fit a regression or classification model and to use the model to make predictions for novel inputs. With gft, fine-tuning and inference are similar to fit and predict in regression and classification. gft demystifies deep nets; no one would suggest that regression-like methods are “intelligent.”

Book Review

Front Cover (OFC, IFC) and matter

  • NLE volume 28 issue 4 Cover and Front matter
  • Published online by Cambridge University Press: 16 June 2022, pp. f1-f2
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Back Cover (IBC, OBC) and matter

  • NLE volume 28 issue 4 Cover and Back matter
  • Published online by Cambridge University Press: 16 June 2022, pp. b1-b2
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