¹ Vida D. Scudder, 23 July 1934, Book III, Folder 7, Box 1, Vida Dutton Scudder Papers, Sophia Smith Collection, Smith College, Northampton, MA (hereafter VDS Papers).

² Scudder, 14 March and 9 Aug. 1932, and 23 July 1933, Book I, Folder 6, Box 1, VDS Papers; 13 Feb. and 28 Oct. 1935, and 8 July 1936, Book IV, Folder 7, Box 1, VDS Papers. See also 6 Sept. 1940 and 28 Oct. 1945, in “Book of Age,” Folder 8, Box 1, VDS Papers; Theresa Corcoran, Vida Dutton Scudder (Boston, 1982), 87. The count of Scudder's books excludes pamphlets and edited collections.

³ Scudder, 18 Nov. 1936, “Book of Age.” On Florence Converse see Corcoran, Vida Dutton Scudder, 108–10, as well as Scudder to Ellen Gates Starr, n.d. (“Each day …”) and n.d. (“It is shameful that …”), Box 10, Folder 11: Scudder, Vida D. 1915–29, Ellen Gates Starr Papers, Sophia Smith Collection, Smith College, Northampton, MA (hereafter EGS Papers); Vida Dutton Scudder, On Journey (New York, 1937), esp. 275; Lindley, Susan Hill, “Gender and the Social Gospel Novel,” in Edwards, Wendy J. Deichmann and Gifford, Carolyn De Swarte, eds., Gender and the Social Gospel (Urbana, 2003), 186–201Google Scholar.

⁴ Deegan, Mary Jo and Wahl, Ana-Maria, “Introduction,” in Starr, Ellen Gates, On Art, Labor, and Religion, ed. Deegan, Mary Jo and Wahl, Ana-Maria (New Brunswick, 2003), 1–35Google Scholar, at 28, 16.

⁵ On High Episcopalianism see especially Williams, Peter W., Religion, Art, and Money: Episcopalians and American Culture from the Civil War to the Great Depression (Chapel Hill, 2016)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Rzeznik, Thomas F., Church and Estate: Religion and Wealth in Industrial-Era Philadelphia (University Park, 2013)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Lears, T. J. Jackson, No Place of Grace: Antimodernism and the Transformation of American Culture, 1880–1920, 2nd edn (Chicago, 1994), 198–215Google Scholar. Scudder's self-description and Starr's eventual conversion make precise nomenclature difficult. As much as possible, I use “Catholic” to indicate institutional Catholicism and the lower-case “catholic” to describe both women's broader religious views. However, given that both Scudder and Starr considered themselves Catholic at various points in their lives, I use the phrase “Catholic socialist progressivism” to capture their overarching social thought.

⁶ This could change with the recent publication of Dorrien, Gary, American Democratic Socialism: History, Politics, Religion, and Theory (New Haven, 2021)Google Scholar; and McCarraher, Eugene, The Enchantments of Mammon: How Capitalism Became the Religion of Modernity (Cambridge, MA, 2019)Google Scholar, both of which feature Scudder. See also overviews in Hinson-Hasty, Elisabeth L., Beyond the Social Maze: Exploring Vida Dutton Scudder's Theological Ethics (New York, 2006)Google Scholar; Corcoran, Vida Dutton Scudder; McCarraher, Eugene, Christian Critics: Religion and the Impasse in Modern American Social Thought (Ithaca, 2000), 30–32Google Scholar; Lindley, Susan H., “‘Neglected Voices’ and ‘Praxis’ in the Social Gospel,” Journal of Religious Ethics 18/1 (1990), 75–102Google Scholar; Smith, Gary Scott, “Creating a Cooperative Commonwealth: Vida Scudder's Quest to Reconcile Christianity and Socialism, 1890–1920,” Anglican and Episcopal History 62/3 (1993), 397–428Google Scholar; Palmieri, Patricia, In Adamless Eden: The Community of Women Faculty at Wellesley (New Haven, 1995)Google Scholar; Carson, Mina, Settlement Folk: Social Thought and the American Settlement Movement, 1885–1930 (Chicago, 1990)Google Scholar; Williams, Religion, Art, and Money, 142–7.

⁷ Most recently, Duran, Jane, “Ellen Gates Starr and Julia Lathrop: Hull House and Philosophy,” The Pluralist 9/1 (2014), 1–13CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Williams, Religion, Art, and Money, 140–42; Starr, On Art, Labor, and Religion.

⁸ Corcoran, Vida Dutton Scudder, 8; Dorrien, American Democratic Socialism, 93–5; Deegan and Wahl, “Introduction,” 5, 7–8, 17, 32–3; Duran, “Ellen Gates Starr,” 2, 4; Knight, Louise W., Jane Addams: Spirit in Action (New York, 2010), 84–5Google Scholar.

⁹ See letters between Starr and Frances Crane Lillie from 1937 and 1938, Box 9, “Lillie Frances Crane, 1936–38” folder, EGS Papers. For examples of the tendency to begin left Catholicism with Day, see Loughery, John and Randolph, Blythe, Dorothy Day: Dissenting Voice of the American Century (New York, 2020), 2–4Google Scholar; Dorrien, American Democratic Socialism, 185; R. A. R. Edwards, “Jane Addams, Walter Rauschenbusch, and Dorothy Day: A Comparative Study of Settlement Theology,” in Edwards and Gifford, Gender and the Social Gospel, 150–66; Robert Trawick, “Dorothy Day and the Social Gospel Movement: Different Theologies, Common Concerns,” in ibid., 139–49.

¹⁰ Landmark studies such as Kloppenberg, James T., Uncertain Victory: Social Democracy and Progressivism in European and American Thought (Oxford, 1986)Google Scholar; and Schneirov, Richard, Labor and Urban Politics: Class Conflict and the Origins of Modern Liberalism in Chicago (Urbana, 1998)Google Scholar, connected socialism and progressivism, but interest has increased recently. See especially Dorrien, American Democratic Socialism; Gerald Friedman, Rosanne Currarino, and Richard Schneirov, “Recovering the Centrality of Social Democracy in the Early Twentieth Century,” at https://s-usih.org/conference/conferences; Barton, Stephen E., “Berkeley Mayor J. Stitt Wilson: Christian Socialist, Georgist, Feminist,” American Journal of Economics and Sociology 75/1 (2016), 193–216CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and New Perspectives on Socialism I and New Perspectives on Socialism II, two special issues of the Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era 2/3–4 (2003). On women see especially Dorrien, American Democratic Socialism; Turpin, Andrea L., A New Moral Vision: Gender, Religion, and the Changing Purposes of American Higher Education, 1837–1917 (Ithaca, 2016)Google Scholar; Du Mez, Kristin Kobes, A New Gospel for Women: Katharine Bushnell and the Challenge of Christian Feminism (New York, 2015)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Johnston, Andrew M., “The Disappearance of Emily G. Balch, Social Scientist,” Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era 13/2 (2014), 166–99CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Duran, “Ellen Gates Starr”; Loughery and Randolph, Dorothy Day. This includes finally treating Addams as a progressive intellectual: see Christopher Lasch, “Introduction,” in Lasch, ed., The Social Thought of Jane Addams (Indianapolis, 1965), xiii–xxvii, at xv; Winkelman, Joel, “A Working Democracy: Jane Addams on the Meaning of Work,” Review of Politics 75/3 (2013), 357–82CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 359; Fischer, Marilyn, Nackenoff, Carol, and Chmielewski, Wendy E., Jane Addams and the Practice of Democracy (Urbana, 2009)Google Scholar; Muhammad, Khalil Gibran, The Condemnation of Blackness: Race, Crime, and the Making of Modern Urban America (Cambridge, MA, 2010)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Kittelstrom, Amy, The Religion of Democracy: Seven Liberals and the American Moral Tradition (New York, 2015)Google Scholar; Hansen, Jonathan M., The Lost Promise of Patriotism: Debating American Identity, 1890–1920 (Chicago, 2003)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hamington, Maurice, The Social Philosophy of Jane Addams (Urbana, 2009)Google Scholar; Seigfried, Charlene Haddock, “The Social Self in Jane Addams's Prefaces and Introductions,” Transactions of the Charles S. Peirce Society 49/2 (2013): 127–56CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Fischer, Marilyn, Jane Addams's Evolutionary Theorizing: Constructing “Democracy and Social Ethics” (Chicago and London, 2019)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹¹ On controversy, “My Good Italian Friends,” Boston Globe, 10 March 1912, Box 2, “Other Publications, 1902–13” folder, VDS Papers; “From the Boston Common, March 9, 1912, Miss Scudder's Criticized Speech,” 9 March 1912, Box 1, Folder 3, VDS Papers; Theresa Corcoran, “Vida Scudder and the Lawrence Textile Strike,” Essex Institute Historical Collections, July 1979, 183–95; Corcoran, Vida Dutton Scudder, 57; Deegan and Wahl, “Introduction,” 27; Carson, Settlement Folk, 81–3. See also clippings in response to Starr and Lillie joining the Socialist Party, Box 1, Folders 11 and 12, EGS Papers. On socialist ideas see Dorrien, American Democratic Socialism; Daniel T. Rodgers, Atlantic Crossings: Social Politics in a Progressive Age (Cambridge, 1998); Richard Schneirov, “New Perspectives on Socialism II: Socialism and Capitalism Reconsidered,” Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era 2/4 (2003), 351–60.

¹² Addams's own account is Jane Addams, Twenty Years at Hull-House, centennial edn (New York, 1961), 122–5. See also Knight, Jane Addams, 88–9; Abraham Bisno, Abraham Bisno, Union Pioneer (Madison, 1967), 118. Hamington argues that she was nevertheless a socialist despite disliking labels, and Kittelstrom calls her a “social democrat”: Hamington, Social Philosophy, Ch. 7; Kittelstrom, Religion of Democracy, 309–49. On Kelley see Kathryn Kish Sklar, Florence Kelley and the Nation's Work: The Rise of Women's Political Culture, 1830–1900 (New Haven, 1995); Sklar, “Hull House in the 1890s: A Community of Women Reformers,” Signs 10/4 (1985), 658–77; Bisno, Abraham Bisno, 115–18.

¹³ Both women's views on gender deserve further study. Scudder wrote early in her career that a settlement “has for its very essence the power of home-making”: Vida D. Scudder, “The Relation of College Women to Social Need,” Association of Collegiate Alumnae, 24 Oct. 1890, 10, Box 2, “Other Publications, 1884–98” folder, VDS Papers. On gender, settlements, and politics see especially Shannon Jackson, Lines of Activity: Performance, Historiography, Hull-House Domesticity (Ann Arbor, 2000); Sklar, “Hull House”; Mary P. Ryan, Women in Public: Between Banners and Ballots, 1825–1880 (Baltimore, 1990); Maureen A. Flanagan, Seeing with Their Hearts: Chicago Women and the Vision of the Good City, 1871–1933 (Princeton, 2002); Hamington, The Social Philosophy of Jane Addams, 71–85, 150; Paula Baker, “The Domestication of Politics: Women and American Political Society, 1780–1920,” American Historical Review 89/3 (1984), 620–47. On gender and socialism see Mari Jo Buhle, Women and American Socialism, 1870–1920 (Urbana, 1981); Sally M. Miller, Flawed Liberation: Socialism and Feminism (Westport, 1981); Sally M. Miller, “For White Men Only: The Socialist Party of America and Issues of Gender, Ethnicity, and Race,” Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era 2/3 (2003), 283–302. On progressivism's conflict avoidance see especially Michael McGerr, A Fierce Discontent: The Rise and Fall of the Progressive Movement in America, 1870–1920 (New York, 2003).

¹⁴ Vida D. Scudder, Socialism and Character (Boston, 1912), 6.

¹⁵ Scholars who take the first approach focus almost exclusively on men, particularly clergy. Thomas E. Woods Jr, The Church Confronts Modernity: Catholic Intellectuals and the Progressive Era (New York, 2004), 130, argues that Catholic opposition to socialism was essentially unanimous. Scholars who take the latter view are often more inclusive but focus on lay responses to ideas conceptualized in the institutional church: Deborah A. Skok, More than Neighbors: Catholic Settlements and Day Nurseries in Chicago, 1893–1930 (DeKalb, 2007); Wade Luquet and David McAllister, “Widening the Historic Circle: The Contribution of Women Religious to the Development of Social Work,” Journal of Social Work Education 56/2 (2020), 354–68; Ilia Delio, “The First Catholic Social Gospelers: Women Religious in the Nineteenth Century,” U.S. Catholic Historian 13/3 (1995), 1–22; Patricia A. Lamoureux, “Irish Catholic Women and the Labor Movement,” U.S. Catholic Historian 16/3 (1998), 24–44; and the discussions in Carson, Settlement Folk. An exception is Joyce E. Williams and Vicky M. Maclean, “In Search of the Kingdom: The Social Gospel, Settlement Sociology, and the Science of Reform in America's Progressive Era,” Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 48/4 (2012), 339–62.

¹⁶ Scudder, “Social Conscience,” 44; Ellen Gates Starr, “A Bypath into the Great Roadway,” in Starr, On Art, Labor, and Religion, 186–7. Cf. Vida D. Scudder, “The Social Teachings of the Church Year,” Anglican Theological Review 1/4 (1919), 383–406; Scudder, “Christian and Churchwoman: Why?”, Living Church, n.d.

¹⁷ Scudder, On Journey, 161–2. On Catholic communitarianism see Woods, Church Confronts Modernity; John T. McGreevy, Catholicism and American Freedom: A History (New York, 2003); Skok, More than Neighbors; McCarraher, Christian Critics; Jonathan McGregor, “A Queer Orthodoxy: Monastic Socialism and Celibate Sexuality in Vida Dutton Scudder and Ralph Adams Cram,” Journal of American Studies 52/1 (2018), 65–90. Underscoring the rarity of socialism in social Christianity is McCarraher, Enchantments of Mammon, esp. 282. On American Episcopalians see competing views in Rzeznik, Church and Estate; and Williams, Religion, Art, and Money. On working-class Catholic activism see Heath W. Carter, Union Made: Working People and the Rise of Social Christianity in Chicago (New York, 2015); Lamoureux, “Irish Catholic Women.”

¹⁸ Scudder, Socialism and Character, 69–70.

¹⁹ Ellen Gates Starr, “Settlements and the Church's Duty,” Publications of the Church Social Union 28 (15 Aug. 1896), 3–16, at 12.

²⁰ Ibid., 7.

²¹ Scudder, Socialism and Character, 3.

²² Starr, “A Bypath,” 167–8; Stebner, Women of Hull House, 83–4.

²³ Deegan and Wahl, “Introduction,” 3–4; Knight, Jane Addams, 27–8; Carson, Settlement Folk, 43–5. On “spiritual meaning” see also Addams, Twenty Years, 41–57; Addams to Starr, 7 Feb. 1886 and 22 June 1884, in Jane Addams, The Selected Papers of Jane Addams, ed. Mary Lynn McCree Bryan, Barbara Bair, and Marie De Angury, vol. 2: Venturing into Usefulness, 1881–88 (Urbana, 2009), 330, 433.

²⁴ See Starr to Addams, 3 Dec. 1885 and 10 and 13 March 1886, in Selected Papers of Jane Addams, 416–17, 447–8. In 1910 Lillie worried that Starr was “going to choose between me and a more Catholic stand than you have ever taken.” Frances Crane Lillie to Ellen Gates Starr, 18 July 1910, Box 9, “Lillie Frances Crane, 1906–19” folder, EGS Papers. See also Stebner, Women of Hull House, 92; Carson, Settlement Folk, 35–41.

²⁵ On fashion see Deegan and Wahl, “Introduction,” 10. One neighbor with fond memories of Starr called her “cranky, slightly crotchety, and quite intolerant.” Harriet Welling, OH-048, interview by Mary Ann Johnson, 12 Sept. 1984, Series II, Box 5, Folder 83, Hull House Oral History Collection, the University of Illinois at Chicago Circle. The Starr–Addams contrast features in Stebner, Women of Hull House, 92–100; and Carson, Settlement Folk, 81–2. Deegan and Wahl argue that focus on Addams distorts perceptions of Starr: see Deegan and Wahl, “Introduction,” 32–3.

²⁶ Frances Crane Lillie, “Thursday Morning (Likely 1910),” Box 9, “Lillie Frances Crane, 1906–19” folder, EGS Papers.

²⁷ See letters between Father John Handly and Ellen Gates Starr, Box 9, Folder 14, EGS Papers, especially those from the early 1920s, 14 July 1932, 9 Aug. 1932, and 16 Aug. 1933.

²⁸ Starr quoted in Anne Firor Scott, “Introduction,” in Jane Addams, Democracy and Social Ethics, ed. Anne Firor Scott (Cambridge, MA, 1964), vii–lxxvi, at xxiii–xxiv.

²⁹ Henrietta Barnett, “Passionless Reformers,” in Samuel Barnett and Henrietta Barnett, Practicable Socialism: Essays on Social Reform, 2nd edn (London, 1894), 88–98, at 93. See also Carson, Settlement Folk, 1–10; Allen F. Davis, Spearheads for Reform: The Social Settlements and the Progressive Movement 1890–1914 (New Brunswick, 1984), 3–8.

³⁰ Vida D. Scudder, “An Appeal for a New Work” (12 Feb. 1889), Box 2, “Other Publications, 1884–98” folder, VDS Papers; Robert Archey Woods, “Social Recovery,” in Woods, ed., The City Wilderness: A Settlement Study by Residents and Associates of the South End House (Boston, 1898), 273–4.

³¹ On dogma see studies of Scudder's theology, especially Hinson-Hasty, Social Maze; McGregor, “Queer Orthodoxy.” Starr's theology merits further investigation. On Christianity and progressivism see Stebner, Women of Hull House; Carson, Settlement Folk; Davis, Spearheads for Reform, esp. 27–9; Kittelstrom, Religion of Democracy; Gary Dorrien, Social Ethics in the Making: Interpreting an American Tradition (Malden, 2009), 36–48; Richard Wightman Fox, “The Culture of Liberal Protestant Progressivism, 1875–1925,” Journal of Interdisciplinary History 23/3 (1993), 639–60. Such accounts often acknowledge High Church thinkers but position them as exceptions. See also Dan McKanan, “The Implicit Religion of Radicalism: Socialist Party Theology, 1900–1934,” Journal of the American Academy of Religion 78/3 (2010), 750–89. Jacob H. Dorn, “‘In Spiritual Communion’: Eugene V. Debs and the Socialist Christians,” Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era 2/3 (2003), 303–25; Edwards, “Jane Addams.” Exceptions are the excellent Dorrien, American Democratic Socialism; and Williams, Religion, Art, and Money. Even accounts of Catholic activism highlight divergence between Catholic and Protestant “progressives”: see Luquet and McAllister, “Widening the Historic Circle”; Woods, Church Confronts Modernity; McGreevy, Catholicism and American Freedom; Skok, More than Neighbors; McCarraher, Christian Critics; Delio, “First Catholic Social Gospelers.” Jackson Lears, Rebirth of a Nation: The Making of Modern America, 1877–1920 (New York, 2010), argues that Protestantism shaped even those who were not religious.

³² On settlements and secularism see Starr, “Settlements”; Vida Dutton Scudder, “Socialism and Sacrifice,” Atlantic Monthly, June 1910, 845, Box 2, “Atlantic Monthly, 1883–1931 and Yale Review, 1914–21” folder, VDS Papers; Carson, Settlement Folk, 57–8; Skok, More than Neighbors, 4–7; Rivka Shpak Lissak, Pluralism and Progressives: Hull House and the New Immigrants, 1890–1919 (Chicago, 1989), 97–100; Stebner, Women of Hull House, 39–47.

³³ On Starr and Huntington see 1897 Notebook, Box 19, Folder 1, EGS Papers; Ellen Gates Starr to Charles Wager, 14 Aug. 1909, Box 11, Folder 2, EGS Papers. Scudder was asked to write Huntington's biography: Vida D. Scudder, Father Huntington, Founder of the Order of the Holy Cross (New York, 1940); see also Corcoran, Vida Dutton Scudder, 88–93. Scudder tried and failed to get Rauschenbusch to join the Socialist Party: Christopher Hodge Evans, The Social Gospel in American Religion: A History (New York, 2017), 101; Dorrien, American Democratic Socialism, 93. See also Vida D. Scudder, The Church and the Hour: Reflections of a Socialist Churchwoman (New York, 1917); Starr, “A Bypath,” 169; Scudder, On Journey, 39; Vida D. Scudder, “The Social Conscience in American Churches,” The Commonwealth 32/374 (1927), 41–4; Scudder, “Forerunners of the C.L.I.D.: Our Heritage from the Past,” The Witness, 25 Sept. 1925; Scudder, “The Social Duty of Catholics,” American Church Monthly, May 1930, all in Box 2, “Other Publications, 1922–48, n.d.” folder, VDS Papers; Rzeznik, Church and Estate, 181–208; Elizabeth Hinson-Hasty, “Solidarity and the Social Gospel: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives,” American Journal of Theology and Philosophy 37/2 (2016), 137–50.

³⁴ Starr, “Settlements,” 15–16. Cf. McCarraher, Enchantments of Mammon, 347.

³⁵ The best accounts of Arts and Crafts in the United States are Lears, No Place of Grace; and McCarraher, Enchantments of Mammon, 296–327, though neither foregrounds Starr. See also Williams, Religion, Art, and Money, for the connection to Episcopalianism. On Starr see Deegan and Wahl, “Introduction”; Stebner, Women of Hull House, 87; Jackson, Lines of Activity, 254–5; Mary Ann Stankiewicz, “Art at Hull House, 1899–1901: Jane Addams and Ellen Gates Starr,” Woman's Art Journal 10/1 (1989), 35–39; Jennifer L. Bosch, “Ellen Gates Starr: Hull House Labor Activist,” in Ronald C. Kent, Sara Markham, David R. Roediger, and Herbert Shapiro, eds., Culture, Gender, Race, and U.S. Labor History (Westport, 1993), 77–88, at 78–9.

³⁶ Scudder, “Recollections of Ruskin,” 569, 571. See also Carson, Settlement Folk, 1–4, 30; Lears, No Place of Grace, 59–96.

³⁷ Dorrien, American Democratic Socialism, 64; Scudder, On Journey, 162–3.

³⁸ Scudder, On Journey, 49.

³⁹ Ibid., 57–74; Carson, Settlement Folk, 38–40.

⁴⁰ Corcoran, Vida Dutton Scudder, 4, 7; Davis, Spearheads for Reform, 10–11; Kay Atwater, “A Socialist Impelled by Christian Faith,” The Witness, March 1979, Box 1, Folder 3, VDS Papers; Vida D. Scudder, “Letter to the Editor,” 1912, Box 1, Folder 3, VDS Papers; Lindley, “Neglected Voices,” 77–8; Palmieri, In Adamless Eden, 130–32, 242–52.

⁴¹ Scudder, On Journey, 110–11, 135–40; Davis, Spearheads for Reform, 10–11.

⁴² Scudder, On Journey, 135–6, 141–2.

⁴³ Vida Dutton Scudder, “Early Days at Denison House” (clipping, n.d.), Box 1, Folder 1, VDS Papers; Scudder, On Journey, 141, 268, 276; Corcoran, Vida Dutton Scudder, 5–6, 8; Corcoran, “Vida Scudder”; Smith, “Cooperative Commonwealth,” 402–3; “Vida Scudder, Liberal Sage, Died Saturday,” The Townsman, October 14, 1954, Box 1, Folder 3, VDS Papers.

⁴⁴ Scudder, On Journey, 276.

⁴⁵ Carson, Settlement Folk, x–xi.

⁴⁶ Starr, “Settlements,” 3. Cf. Addams, Twenty Years, Ch. 6, “The Subjective Necessity for Social Settlements,” first delivered at a conference Scudder attended. See also Laura R. Fisher, Reading for Reform: The Social Work of Literature in the Progressive Era (Minneapolis, 2019); David Huyssen, Progressive Inequality: Rich and Poor in New York, 1890–1920 (Cambridge, MA, 2014); Laura M. Westhoff, A Fatal Drifting Apart: Democratic Social Knowledge and Chicago Reform (Columbus, OH, 2007).

⁴⁷ Lillian Wald, The House on Henry Street (New York, 1915), 310.

⁴⁸ Vida D. Scudder, “A Glimpse Into Life,” Wellesley Magazine, 18 Feb. 1893, 232, Box 2, “Other Publications, 1884–98” folder, VDS Papers. Cf. Woods, “Social Recovery,” 274.

⁴⁹ Katharine Coman, Gertrude Barnum, and Ellen Gates Starr, “Garment Workers’ Strike,” 3, Box 1, Folder 12, EGS Papers.

⁵⁰ Scudder, “Glimpse,” 228. See also Hinson-Hasty, Social Maze, 59, 61–2.

⁵¹ Starr, “Settlements,” 5–6. Cf. Scudder, Socialism and Character, 141; Carson, Settlement Folk, 60, 67–8.

⁵² Starr, “Settlements,” 8.

⁵³ Ibid., 7.

⁵⁴ See Carson, Settlement Folk, 91–2; Sklar, Florence Kelley.

⁵⁵ Scudder, On Journey, 148–72.

⁵⁶ Scudder, “Socialism and Sacrifice,” 842. See also Scudder, Socialism and Character, 16–21, 429–31; Smith, “Cooperative Commonwealth,” 404–5; Davis, Spearheads for Reform, 231.

⁵⁷ Wald, House on Henry Street, 167.

⁵⁸ Scudder, “Socialism and Sacrifice,” 842.

⁵⁹ Vida D. Scudder, “Social Intercession,” Association Monthly 8/8 (1919), 317–18; Fredrica Harris Thompsett, “A Passion for Intercessory Prayer: The Historic Vocation of the Society of the Companions of the Holy Cross,” Anglican Theological Review 98/2 (2016), 303–16; Joanna Bowen Gillespie, The Vocation of Companionship: An Organizational History of the Society of the Companions of the Holy Cross (West Conshohocken, PA, 2006).

⁶⁰ See especially Starr's correspondence with Charles Wager, Father Handly, and Frances Crane Lillie, Boxes 9, 11, 14, and 15, EGS Papers; Scudder, “Forerunners of the C.L.I.D.”; Scudder, “Social Conscience”; Vida D. Scudder, “Socialism and Spiritual Progress: A Speculation,” Publications of the Church Social Union, Series A, no. 10 (1 Jan. 1896); Scudder, On Journey, 164–72; “Conference Program, S.C.H.C. Conference on ‘The Church and Social Justice,’ A.D. 1909,” 21 Sept. 1909, Box 11, Folder 2, EGS Papers; Ellen Gates Starr, “The Prophet Amos, Miss Starr, and the Thinking Thousand,” Trimmed Lamp, Feb. 1916, Box 1, Folder 12, EGS Papers; Williams, Religion, Art, and Money, 117–50; Rzeznik, Church and Estate, 181–208; Bosch, “Ellen Gates Starr”; Scudder, “Social Conscience”; as well as thorough discussions in McCarraher, Christian Critics; and Dorrien, American Democratic Socialism.

⁶¹ See Dorrien, American Democratic Socialism; Dorn, “In Spiritual Communion”; Carson, Settlement Folk, especially 81–3; Richard Schneirov, “Walter E. Weyl, John Graham Brooks, and William English Walling and American Social Democracy,” in Recovering the Centrality of Social Democracy in the Early Twentieth Century (2020), at https://s-usih.org/conference/conferences; Richard Schneirov, “New Perspectives on Socialism I: The Socialist Party Revisited,” Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era 2/3 (2003), 245–52; Corcoran, Vida Dutton Scudder, 43–5, 56–7; Deegan and Wahl, “Introduction,” 2, 26–7; Bosch, “Ellen Gates Starr,” 81; Jacob H. Dorn, “The Social Gospel and Socialism: A Comparison of the Thought of Francis Greenwood Peabody, Washington Gladden, and Walter Rauschenbusch,” Church History 62/1 (1993), 82–100, at 99; Kittelstrom, Religion of Democracy, 309–49. The Catholic Church, even when pro-labor, was strongly antisocialist for these reasons: see especially Woods, Church Confronts Modernity; and on the Episcopal Church see Rzeznik, Church and Estate, 181–208.

⁶² Emily Greene Balch, “Acceptance and Transcendence of Socialism,” in Beyond Nationalism: The Social Thought of Emily Greene Balch, ed. Mercedes M. Randall (New York, 1972), 49–50.

⁶³ Starr, “Settlements,” 7.

⁶⁴ Addams, Twenty Years, 83; Jane Addams, Newer Ideals of Peace (Urbana, 2007), 77. On Addams and labor see Addams, Twenty Years, 124; Winkelman, “A Working Democracy”; Susan Roth Breitzer, “Uneasy Alliances: Hull House, the Garment Workers Strikes, and the Jews of Chicago,” Indiana Magazine of History 106/1 (2010), 40–70; Connolly, An Elusive Unity, 170–77; Carl Smith, Urban Disorder and the Shape of Belief: The Great Chicago Fire, the Haymarket Bomb, and the Model Town of Pullman, 2nd edn (Chicago, 2007), 255–70.

⁶⁵ Vida D. Scudder, “Beyond ‘Stewardship’,” Living Church, 15 Nov. 1919, Box 2, “Other Publications, 1914–19” folder, VDS Papers.

⁶⁶ Vida D. Scudder, “Class-Consciousness,” Atlantic Monthly, March 1911, 320–30, at 325, Box 2, “Atlantic Monthly, 1883–1931 and Yale Review, 1914–21” folder, VDS Papers. On Addams, see ibid., 320. Compare to Hinson-Hasty, who downplays Scudder's embrace of class consciousness: Hinson-Hasty, Social Maze, esp. 109–10.

⁶⁷ Vida D. Scudder to Ellen Gates Starr, 19 March 1925, Box 10, Folder 11, EGS Papers; Ellen Gates Starr to Charles Wager, 2 Jan. 1920, Box 11, Folder 8, EGS Papers. Both women's attitudes toward the USSR deserve further study. Scudder leaves a particularly rich trove of documents: see notes on Trotsky, Box 1, Folders 7 and 8; Vida D. Scudder, “A Christmas Message,” The Churchman, 22 Dec. 1917, Box 2, “Other Publications, 1914–19” folder; Scudder, “The Problems of Socialism from a College Window,” New Leader, 29 Jan. 1927, Box 2, “Other Publications, 1922–48, n.d.” folder; Scudder, On Journey, 170–72, 303–6; Vida D. Scudder, “A Little Tour in the Mind of Lenin,” Christian Century, 24 March 1937, Box 2, “Other Publications, 1922–48, n.d.” folder, all in VDS Papers.

⁶⁸ Scudder, “Social Intercession,” 317.

⁶⁹ Scudder, Socialism and Character, 129.

⁷⁰ See Woods, Church Confronts Modernity; Carter, Union Made, 3–5, 83, 141–2, 166–8; Loughery and Randolph, Dorothy Day, 4–6; McGreevy, Catholicism and American Freedom; Dorrien, American Democratic Socialism, esp. 94. On Scudder in theological context see Williams, Religion, Art, and Money, 117–50; Hinson-Hasty, Social Maze.

⁷¹ Scudder, On Journey, 163.

⁷² Ibid., 36–8.

⁷³ See e.g. Scudder to Ellen Gates Starr, 25 Sept. 1924, EGS Papers; 14 June 1935, Book V, Box 1, Folder 8, VDS Papers; Vida D. Scudder, “Christian and Churchwoman: Why?”, Living Church, n.d., 355, VDS Papers.

⁷⁴ Scudder, “Church Year,” 386. On the convention see Stebner, Women of Hull House, 91; and Williams, Religion, Art, and Money.

⁷⁵ Demonstrating Scudder's leadership are Smith, “Cooperative Commonwealth”; Hinson-Hasty, Social Maze; Hinson-Hasty, “Solidarity and the Social Gospel”; and to a certain extent Williams, Religion, Art, and Money; Lears, No Place of Grace, 198–215; McCarraher, Christian Critics, 30–32; Dorrien, American Democratic Socialism. McKanan, “Implicit Religion,” 775, argues instead that Scudder has gotten too much attention.

⁷⁶ Williams discusses Scudder in depth but deems her “moderate”: Williams, Religion, Art, and Money, 64, 141–5. See also Smith, “Cooperative Commonwealth,” 398–404; Corcoran, Vida Dutton Scudder, 6–11, 43–4, 65–6; Hinson-Hasty, Social Maze, 6–9; “Vida Scudder, Liberal Sage”; “Ambassador to the Court of St. Francis: The Story of Vida D. Scudder,” World Tomorrow, Aug. 1930, 329–32; McKanan, “Implicit Religion,” 771–4.

⁷⁷ Hinson-Hasty, Social Maze, 11; Atwater, “A Socialist Impelled.”

⁷⁸ Scudder, On Journey, 67, 160.

⁷⁹ Corcoran especially sees fellowship as central to Scudder's thinking: Corcoran, Vida Dutton Scudder, 18, 106–10. See also Hinson-Hasty, “Solidarity and the Social Gospel,” 144–8; Carson, Settlement Folk, 38–9, 83–4; Williams, Religion, Art, and Money, 144; Lears, No Place of Grace, 210–11.

⁸⁰ Vida D. Scudder, “A Modern Legend,” Harper's Magazine, Jan. 1891, 300–3, at 301–2, Box 2, “Other Publications, 1884–98” folder, VDS Papers.

⁸¹ Ibid., 302.

⁸² Ibid., 303.

⁸³ Ibid., 303.

⁸⁴ Scudder, On Journey, 21–30, 34–44, 47–49.

⁸⁵ Ibid., 30.

⁸⁶ Ibid., 50.

⁸⁷ Ibid., 43.

⁸⁸ Scudder, “Holy Thursday,” 1935, Book IV, VDS Papers.

⁸⁹ Scudder, On Journey, 145–6.

⁹⁰ Scudder, “Socialism and Sacrifice,” 847.

⁹¹ Scudder, “Relation,” 9; Scudder, Socialism and Character, 132.

⁹² Later in life Scudder concluded that a revolution without Christianity would fail, but she never rejected social revolution, although several commentators use Scudder's later views to discount her earlier statements. See especially Vida D. Scudder, 1935–45 Journal, Box 1, Folder 8, VDS Papers; Scudder, “The Social Conscience in American Churches,” 44; Vida D. Scudder, “Religion and Socialism,” Harvard Theological Review 3 (1910), 230–47, at 242; Scudder, “Church Year”; Williams, Religion, Art, and Money, 150; Lears, No Place of Grace, 212–15; and McCarraher, Enchantments of Mammon, who places Scudder's Anglo-Catholicism at odds with her socialism.

⁹³ Scudder, Socialism and Character, 5–6.

⁹⁴ See Scudder, On Journey, 148–9; Scudder, Socialism and Character, 16–22, 141–3.

⁹⁵ Vida D. Scudder, “‘Socializing’ Democracy,” Boston Transcript, 28 Jan. 1911, Box 2, “Other Publications, 1902–13” folder, VDS Papers. Cf. Smith, “Cooperative Commonwealth,” 405–6.

⁹⁶ Scudder, Socialism and Character, 110. One need not accept Scudder's interpretation of Addams, nor characterize Addams as “individualistic,” as Smith does, to conclude that Addams's philosophy centered interpersonal relationships. See Smith, “Cooperative Commonwealth,” 406; Jane Addams, Democracy and Social Ethics, ed. Ann Firor Scott (Cambridge, MA, 1964), especially Ch. 1; Seigfried, “Social Self”; Kittelstrom, Religion of Democracy, 1–15, 309–49; Abigail Modaff, “‘To Meet Life Face to Face’: Communication and American Social Reform from Haymarket to the Harlem Renaissance” (unpublished PhD thesis, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 2021), 187–279.

⁹⁷ Scudder, Socialism and Character, 178. Cf. Scudder, “Religion and Socialism.”

⁹⁸ Scudder, Socialism and Character, 77–91; Scudder, “Class-Consciousness,” 326–7; Scudder, Church and the Hour, 103–18. Starr agreed: Starr, “A Bypath,” 186; Starr, “Settlements,” 11–12.

⁹⁹ See especially McCarraher, Enchantments of Mammon, 346–59; Hinson-Hasty, Social Maze.

¹⁰⁰ Scudder, On Journey, 168.

¹⁰¹ Scudder, Socialism and Character, 146.

¹⁰² Ibid., 147. See also Smith, “Cooperative Commonwealth,” 420; McCarraher, Christian Critics, 31. On the material in this period's Episcopalianism see especially Williams, Religion, Art, and Money; McCarraher, Enchantments of Mammon; Lears, No Place of Grace, 183–215.

¹⁰³ Scudder, Socialism and Character, 69–70.

¹⁰⁴ Scudder, “Church Year,” 384.

¹⁰⁵ Scudder, “Socialism and Sacrifice,” 846.

¹⁰⁶ Scudder, Socialism and Character, 141.

¹⁰⁷ See Scudder, “Socialism and Sacrifice,” 846; Scudder, Socialism and Character, 141–4; “Smith College,” Hampshire Gazette, 20 March 1912, Box 2, “Other Publications, 1902–13” folder, VDS Papers.

¹⁰⁸ Scudder, Socialism and Character, vii.

¹⁰⁹ Scudder, “Socialism and Sacrifice,” 849. On socialism and incarnation see also Scudder, Socialism and Character, 353–5; Smith, “Cooperative Commonwealth”; Williams, Religion, Art, and Money, 6, 60, 145–9; Carson, Settlement Folk, 3–4, 38. Compare to Lears, No Place of Grace, 214.

¹¹⁰ Starr, “Settlements,” 4.

¹¹¹ Ellen Gates Starr, “Cheap Clothes and Nasty,” in Starr, On Art, Labor, and Religion, 135–8. On the strike see Breitzer, “Uneasy Alliances,” as well as EGS Papers, Box 1, Folders 11 and 12; Welling interview; Sidney Hillman to Ellen Gates Starr, 22 Dec. 1915, Box 9, “Hillman, Sidney, 1915” folder, EGS Papers.

¹¹² Ellen Gates Starr, “Reflections on the Recent Chicago Strike of Clothing Workers,” in On Art, Labor, and Religion, 139.

¹¹³ Starr, “Cheap Clothes,” 135–6.

¹¹⁴ Deegan and Wahl, “Introduction,” 27; Jacob S. Potofsky, “Ellen Gates Starr (Letter to The Public Forum),” Day Book, 17 March 1916; “Ellen Gates Starr, 19th Ward Aldermanic Candidate, Outlines Platform,” Day Book, 23 March 1916, both from Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers, Library of Congress.

¹¹⁵ Ellen Gates Starr, “Why I Am a Socialist” (clipping, n.d.), Box 8, Folder 5, EGS Papers.

¹¹⁶ Starr, “Reflections,” 26–7; Stebner, Women of Hull House, 86–90; Bosch, “Ellen Gates Starr.”

¹¹⁷ “Jane Addams to Make ‘Last Plea’ to Mayor,” Tribune, 17 Nov. 1915, Box 1, Folder 12, EGS Papers.

¹¹⁸ Knight, Jane Addams, 84.

¹¹⁹ Starr gained this nickname from the Chicago press in 1915–16: Deegan and Wahl, “Introduction,” 2, 26–7.

¹²⁰ Ibid., 16.

¹²¹ Ibid., 28.

¹²² Ibid., esp. 28. See also Stankiewicz, “Art at Hull House,” 39; Bosch, “Ellen Gates Starr,” 86.

¹²³ See especially Starr, “A Bypath,” 2003, 181–92.

¹²⁴ Starr, “Why I Am a Socialist.”

¹²⁵ On influences see especially “S.C.H.C. Conference Program”; Ellen Gates Starr to Charles Wager, 9 Aug. 1909, Box 11, Folder 2; Frances Crane Lillie to Ellen Gates Starr, 9 Oct. 1920, Box 9, “Lillie Frances Crane, 1906–19” folder; Frances Crane Lillie to Ellen Gates Starr, 12 Oct. 1931, Box 9, “Lillie Frances Crane, 1930–35” folder, all in EGS Papers.

¹²⁶ On machines see Ellen Gates Starr, “The Renaissance of Handicraft,” in Starr, On Art, Labor, and Religion, 83–7; Alford, Sarah, “Ellen Gates Starr and Frank Lloyd Wright at Hull House: The Machine as the ‘Will of Life’,” Journal of Design History 30/3 (2017), 282–99CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Compare to McCarraher, Enchantments of Mammon, 321–4.

¹²⁷ Starr, “Why I Am a Socialist.”

¹²⁸ Compare to Duran, “Ellen Gates Starr,” who reads Starr as a Deweyan pragmatist.

¹²⁹ Starr, “Why I Am a Socialist.”

¹³⁰ Ibid.

¹³¹ Agnes Nestor, president of the WTUL, quoted in “Abt Attacked in Open Letter by Ellen Starr (Newspaper Clipping),” 1915, Box 1, Folder 12, EGS Papers.

¹³² Ellen Gates Starr, “Art and Labor,” in Starr, On Art, Labor, and Religion, 65–74, at 73.

¹³³ Deegan and Wahl, “Introduction,” 1, 17–24; Lears, No Place of Grace, 67; Stankiewicz, “Art at Hull House,” 37; Carson, Settlement Folk, 45–50; Alford, “Ellen Gates Starr.” See also letters between Ellen Starr and T. J. Cobden-Sanderson, Box 9, Folder 3, EGS Papers; Ellen Gates Starr, “Hull-House Bookbindery,” in Starr, On Art, Labor, and Religion, 79–82.

¹³⁴ Stebner, Women of Hull House, 87; Deegan and Wahl, “Introduction,” 6, 18; Stankiewicz, “Art at Hull House,” 36; Jackson, Lines of Activity, 254–5; Sadie Garland Dreikurs, OH-024, transcript of oral history interview, 24 June 1980, Series II, Box 2, Folder 26, Hull House Oral History Collection, the University of Illinois at Chicago Circle; John Thoman, OH-025, transcript of oral history interview, 15 Nov. 1985, Series II, Box 5, Folder 78, in the same collection; Welling interview; “Hull-House Bulletin, Autumn 1900,” n.d., Series X, Box 43, Folder 429, Hull House Collection, University of Illinois at Chicago Circle.

¹³⁵ Starr, “Art and Labor,” 66. See also Horowitz, Helen L., “Varieties of Cultural Experience in Jane Addams's Chicago,” History of Education Quarterly 14/1 (1974), 76–77CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Deegan and Wahl, “Introduction,” 19–21. For the most influential analysis of Ruskinian antimodernism see Lears, No Place of Grace; for a more celebratory treatment, see McCarraher, Enchantments of Mammon.

¹³⁶ Starr, “Settlements,” 7.

¹³⁷ See especially McCarraher, Enchantments of Mammon, Part 4, though McCarraher mentions Starr only briefly, at 311–12.

¹³⁸ Starr, “Art and Labor,” 66.

¹³⁹ Ellen Gates Starr, “Art and Democracy” (manuscript address, n.d.), 72, Box 8, Folder 5, EGS Papers.

¹⁴⁰ Starr, “Art and Labor,” 70.

¹⁴¹ Starr, 73.

¹⁴² Cf. Stebner, Women of Hull House, 87; Carson, Settlement Folk, 50, 81–3.

¹⁴³ Starr, “A Bypath,” 170, 176, 179–80; Starr, “Eliza Allen Starr,” especially 161; Carson, Settlement Folk, 43–4.

¹⁴⁴ Jane Addams, The Spirit of Youth and the City Streets (Urbana, 1972), 3.

¹⁴⁵ Jane Addams, Newer Ideals of Peace (Urbana, 2007), 37; Addams, The Spirit of Youth, 10; Jane Addams, Democracy and Social Ethics, 219.

¹⁴⁶ Starr, “Art and Democracy,” 8.

¹⁴⁷ Ibid., 3.

¹⁴⁸ Starr, “Art and Labor,” 65.

¹⁴⁹ Amy Kittelstrom calls this faith in individual capacity the “religion of democracy”: Kittelstrom, Religion of Democracy, 7–8, 14–15. On individual and collective in Addams's thought see also Modaff, “Meet Life Face to Face,” 187–279; Hamington, Social Philosophy, esp. 71–81; Hansen, Lost Promise of Patriotism; Seigfried, “Social Self.” On the artistic individual in Arts and Crafts see McCarraher, Enchantments of Mammon, 296–332.

¹⁵⁰ Starr to Charles Wager, 9 Aug. 1909, EGS Papers, original emphasis. The subtitle of this Conclusion is from Scudder, 28 Oct. 1935, Book V.

¹⁵¹ Scudder, 22 July 1934, Book III.

¹⁵² Scudder, 5 Sept. 1945, Book of Age.

¹⁵³ McCarraher, Enchantments of Mammon, 349; Lears, No Place of Grace, 213; and on Scudder's dismissal as a theorist see Lindley, “Neglected Voices,” 76–7.

¹⁵⁴ Starr, “A Bypath,” 197.

¹⁵⁵ Scudder, 14 March 1932, Book I. This passage became the preamble to On Journey.