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Fifty Years of Republican History

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 September 2012

A. H. McDonald
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Extract

Fifty years ago, when the founders of this Society looked to the future of Roman studies, the general lines of development in Republican history must have seemed fairly clear. On the technical side Mommsen had opened up the main fields of systematic research, Eduard Meyer was at the height of his influence, and Beloch was testing new methods of historical survey, while Niese had arranged the evidence for Hellenistic politics. Historical scholarship could face a great access of material with confidence, as archaeology and epigraphy extended its scope, though this was less likely to affect Republican than Imperial history. At the same time the problems of historical interpretation had taken shape; for the events of the nineteenth century illustrated the play of power politics, which were relevant to the understanding of Roman imperialism. The ‘economic’ interpretation of history was coming into vogue, and this could lead into ‘social history’. If the influence of family connections and personal ambition was felt less urgently, it could be argued that a ‘scientific’ analysis of Roman politics should probe more deeply into the forces that broke out in the constitutional crisis of the Late Republic. We may admit at once that the main work in Republican history during our period has continued along these lines : we are still heavily in debt to the fundamental study of the older masters. The concept of ‘scientific’ history may have been modified, since it is a task of complicated inference to arrive at historical knowledge; yet the actual methods to which we have succeeded are well fitted for the systematic treatment of detailed evidence. Collingwood did less than justice to the school of Mommsen when he charged it with mastery over small-scale problems but weakness in dealing with large-scale ones. Only strict analysis and reconstruction of the evidence allowed the chief issues of Republican history to be defined critically, and subsequent research has refined on this procedure.

Type
Research Article
Information
The Journal of Roman Studies , Volume 50 , Issue 1-2 , November 1960 , pp. 135 - 148
Copyright
Copyright © A. H. McDonald 1960. Exclusive Licence to Publish: The Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies

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References

1 A survey of this kind must be historical, indicating advances in the subject during the period, but brevity will make it selective. The bibliographical notes cannot cover more than the significant works of the period, some less valuable now than they were on their first appearance; even in defining a problem one must limit citation and discussion. Our period has seen a number of general series, from the Cambridge Ancient History and Glotz's Histoire Générale to the Storia di Roma of the Istituto di Studi Romani : we shall only note certain contributions in them that are of special significance for the subject. For greater detail see the classified lists of CAH VII–IX (1928–1932) and Storia di Roma I–III, V (1938–1954); for critical bibliographies consult A. Piganiol, Histoire de Rome (3rd ed., 1949) and Gianelli, G. in Gianelli, and Mazzarino, , Trattato di storia romana 1 (1953)Google Scholar.

2 For a technical account see A. Rosenberg, Einleitung und Quellenkunde zur römischen Geschichte (1921), 292; cf. H. Bengtson, Einführung in die alte Geschichte (1949) II, and A. Passerini, Questioni di storia antica (1952) 205; and raising general issues, A. Momigliano in his Contributo alia storia degli studi classici (1955) and Secondo Contributo (1960). Note R. G. Collingwood, The Idea of History (1946) 131 (on Mommsen), 176 (on Ed. Meyer), and An Autobiography (1939) ch. XI, with the criticism by P. Gardiner, The Nature of Historical Explanation (1952).

3 De Sanctis, G., Storia dei Romani I–IV, 2, 2 (1907–1957)Google Scholar; bibliography in Studi di storia delta storiografia greca (1951) 173; cf. Rivista di filologia NS 35 (1957), 352. P. Fraccaro, Opuscula (1956–57), with bibliography (I, XV), cf. Athenaeum NS 37 (1959), XXII. We may also note their articles which lent distinction to the Enciclopedia Italiana, and their influence, respectively, in the work of Rivista di Filologia and Athenaeum.

4 Among Pais' numerous works see E. Pais, Storia di Roma (1898–9), cf. Storia critica di Roma (1913–20), Storia di Roma (1926–8); note Ancient Legends of Roman History (1906); E. Pais-J. Bayet, Histoire romaine (ed. Glotz) 1 (1926); and below, n. 21.

5 The famous dedication of St. Rom. IV, 1 (1923) : ‘A quei pochissimi che hanno parimente a sdegno d'essere oppressi e di farsi oppressori.’

6 Jones, H. Stuart and Last, Hugh, CAH VIIGoogle Scholar, ch. 10–16; on Last's treatment of the period from the Gracchi to Sulla, see below. Note in tribute to Jones, Stuart, JRS XXVII (1937), 3Google Scholar (cf. ib. XXXV (1945), 78); to Last, JRS XLVII (1957), 3; with bibliographies of their work.

7 O. Montelius, La civilisation primitive en Italie (1895–1910); T. E. Peet, The Stone and Bronze Ages in Italy (1909); F. von Duhn, Italische Gräberkunde (1924–39); U. Rellini, Le origini della civiltà italica (1929); F. Messerschmidt, Bronzezeit und frühe Eisenzeit in Italien (1935); G. Säflund, Le Terremare (1939); D. Randall-MacIver, Villanovans and Early Etruscans (1924), The Iron Age in Italy (1927), Italy before the Romans (1928).

8 G. Devoto, Gli antichi Italici (1931; 2nd ed., 1952); J- Whatmough, The Foundations of Roman Italy (1937).

9 Note, for example, A. Grenier, Bologne villanovienne et etrusque (1912); P. Ducati, Etruria antica (1925); B. Nogara, Gli Etruschi e la loro civiltà (1933); cf. R. A. L. Fell, Etruria and Rome (1924); D. Randall-MacIver, The Etruscans (1927); F. Altheim, Der Ursprung der Etrusker (1950); see now M. Pallottino, Etruscologia (3rd ed., 1955), the Etruscan number of Historia 6 (1957), R. Bloch, The Etruscans (1958, with select bibliography), and R. Lambrechts, Les magistratures des républiques étrusques (1959).

10 Pinza, G., ‘Monumenti primitivi di Roma e del Lazio antico,’ Mon. Antichi 15 (1905)Google Scholar; I. Scott Ryberg, An Archaeological Record of Rome from the Seventh to the Second Century B.C. (1940); Puglisi, S. M., ‘Gli abitatori primitivi del Palatino,’ Mon. Antichi 41 (1951)Google Scholar; Gjerstad, E., Early Rome I–II (1953–1956)Google Scholar; see now R. Bloch, The Origins of Rome (1960, with select bibliography), H. Müller-Karpe, Vom Anfang Roms (1959), and Carettoni, G., JRS L (1960), 193 fGoogle Scholar., 195 f.

11 See Gjerstad and Bloch (above, n. 10); cf. S. Mazzarino, Dalla monarchia allo stato repubblicano (1945); K. Hanell, Das altrömische eponyme Amt (1946).

12 K. J. Beloch, Römische Geschichte bis zum Beginn der Punischen Kriege (1926); cf. M. Cary, History of Rome (1935); G. Gianelli, La repubblica romana (1937); note L. Pareti, Storia di Roma (1952–5); P. Fraccaro, ‘La storia romana arcaica,’ Opuscula I, 3, and JRS XLVII (1957), 59; cf. Last, H., ‘The Servian Reforms,’ JRS XXXV (1945), 30Google Scholar.

13 Ed. Schwartz in Pauly-Wissowa, Real-Encycl. s.v. Appianus, Cassius Dio, Diodoros, Dionysios von Halikarnassos; H. Peter, Historicorum Romanorum Reliquiae I (2nd ed., 1914), and Wahrheit und Kunst (1911); H. Malcovati, Oratorum Romanorum Fragmenta (2nd ed., 1955); less reliable in source analysis are W. Soltau, Die Anfänge der römischen Geschichtschreibung (1909), and A. Klotz, Livius und seine Vorgänger (1941); consult A. Rosenberg (above, n. 2).

14 Gelzer, M., ‘Fabius Pictor,’ Hermes 68 (1933), 129Google Scholar; ‘Der Anfang römischer Geschichtschreibung,’ ib. 69 (1934), 46, and 82 (1954), 342; ‘Über die Arbeitsweise des Polybios,’ Sitzungsb. Heidelb. Akad. Wiss. 1956; Walbank, F. W., Historical Commentary on Polybius I (1957), 26Google Scholar; and note the value for Roman studies of F. Jacoby, Die Fragmente der griechischen Historiker (1923–58); cf. A. H. McDonald, ‘The Roman Historians,’ Fifty Years of Classical Scholarship (ed. M. Platnauer, 1954) ch. 13 (with bibliography).

15 A. Piganiol, Essai sur les origines de Rome (1917); E. Ciaceri, Le origini di Roma (1937).

16 A. Rosenberg, Der Staat der alten Italiker (1913); cf. F. Sartori, Problemi di storia costituzionale italiota (1953); S. Mazzarino (above, n. 11); F. Liefer, Die Einheit des Gewaltgedankens im römischen Staatsrecht (1914); cf. H. Wagenvoort, Roman Dynamism (1947) ch. 2; for freer analysis, Bernardi, A., e.g. in Athenaeum NS. 30 (1952), 3Google Scholar; on recent research (1940–54), especially about the Comitia Centuriata, refer to Staveley, E. S., Historia 5 (1956), 74Google Scholar, who applies conservative criticism. Note G. W. Botsford, The Roman Assemblies (1909); G. Bloch, La plèbe romaine (1911); G. Niccolini, Il tribunato della plebe (1932) and Fasti del tribuni della plebe (1934); cf. now J. Bleicken, Das Volkstribunat der klassischen Republik (1955). In general consult L. Homo, Roman Political Institutions (1929); E. Täubler, Der römische Staat (1936); E. Meyer, Römischer Staat und Staatsgedanke (1948); H. Siber, Römischer Verfassungsrecht (1952); F. De Martino, Storia della costituzione romana (1951–8), and for concise judgment, F. E. Adcock, Roman Political Ideas and Practice (1959).

17 See below, pp. 161 ff. (H. J. Rose, ‘Roman religion’); and in the present paper, R. Bloch, above, n. 10; J. Bayet, Histoire politique et psychologique de la religion romaine (1957, with bibliography).

18 O. Leuze, Die römische Jahrzählung (1909); G. Costa, Fasti consolari romani (1910); E. Pais, Fasti triumphales populi Romani (1920–3); Degrassi, A., Fasti consulates et triumphales (Inscr. Italiae XIII, 1, 1947Google Scholar); T. R. S. Broughton, The Magistrates of the Roman Republic (1951–2), with Supplement (1960).

19 See M. Gelzer, P-W, s.v. ‘Latium’; J. Carcopino, Virgile et les origines d'Ostie (1919); cf. R. Meiggs, Roman Ostia (1960) 16, 483; Salmon, E. T., ‘Rome and the Latins,’ Phoenix 7 (1955), 93, 123CrossRefGoogle Scholar; on the First Carthaginian Treaty, consult Walbank, F. W., Comm. Polyb. I, 337Google Scholar (with discussion and bibliography).

20 K. J. Beloch, Der italische Bund (1880); cf. A. Afzelius, Die römische Eroberung Italiens (1942); Rosenberg, above, n. 16; H. Rudolf, Stadt und Staat im römischen Italien (1935); A. N. Sherwin-White, The Roman Citizenship (1939). Cf. H. Horn, Foederati (1930); F. Altheim, Epochen der römischen Geschichte (1934–5) and Römische Geschichte (1951–3); J. Göhler, Rom und Italien (1931); Salmon, E. T., ‘Roman Colonisation,’ JRS XXVI (1936), 47Google Scholar; E. Manni, Per la storia dei municipi fino alla guerra sociale (1947); M. Sordi, I rapporti romanocereti (1960).

21 H. Nissen, Italische Landeskunde (1883–1902), cf. A. von Hofmann, Das Land Italiens und seine Geschichte (1921); E. Pais, Ancient Italy (1908); F. E. Adcock, CAH VII, ch. 18 (on Samnites); on Veii see Bayet, J., Tite-Live v (Budé, 1954), 125Google Scholar; cf. J. Hubeaux, Rome et Veies (1958); and Perkins, J. Ward, JRS XLVII (1957), 139Google Scholar, noting the archaeological survey of Southern Etruria now being conducted by the British School at Rome. Also note the regional accounts of Italia Romana (Ist. di Studi Romani), e.g. E. Magaldi, Lucania romana (1947).

22 C. Jullian, Histoire de la Gaule (1907–26); H. Hubert, The Greatness and Decline of the Celts (1934); A. Grenier, Les Gaulois (2nd ed., 1945); T. G. E. Powell, The Celts (1958, with bibliography); cf. Walbank, F. W., Comm. Polyb. I, 172Google Scholar; G. E. F. Chilver, Cisalpine Gaul (1941).

23 E. Ciaceri, Storia della Magna Grecia (1927–32); G. Gianelli, La Magna Grecia da Pitagora a Pirro (1928); A. Olivieri, Civiltà greca nell' Italia meridionale (1931); P. Wuilleumier, Tarente (1939); J. Heurgon, Capoue préromaine (1942); T. J. Dunbabin, The Western Greeks (1948); cf. Hoffmann, W., ‘Rom und die griechische Welt im 4 Jahrh.,’ Philologus Supplb. 27 (1934)Google Scholar; P. Lévêque, Pyrrhos (1957); Beloch, K. J., Griechische Geschichte IV (2nd ed., 1925–1927)Google Scholar. For Hellenistic knowledge see E. Wikén, Die Kunde der Hellenen von dem Lande und den Völkern der Apenninenhalbinsel bis 300 v. Chr. (1937); M. Ninck, Die Entdeckung von Europa durch die Griechen (1945); Momigliano, A., Rivista stor. ital. 71 (1959), 529Google Scholar (on Timaeus and Rome).

24 Ed. Meyer, Geschichte des Altertums II, 2 (2nd ed. by H. E. Stier, 1931); G. Contenau, La civilisation phénicienne (1939); Gsell, S., Histoire ancienne de l'Afrique du Nord I–IV (1913–1921)Google Scholar; cf. J. Carcopino, Le Maroc antique (1944); Meltzer, O., Geschichte der Karthager I–II (1879–1896)Google Scholar, in by U. Kahrstedt (1913); De Sanctis, St. Rom. in; B. L. Hallward, CAH VIII, ch. 2–4, 15 (with M. P. Charlesworth); V. Ehrenberg, Karthago (1927); G.-G. Lapeyre and A. Pellegrin, Carthage punique (1942); J. Vogt (ed.), Rom und Karthago (1942); G. Picard, Le monde de Carthage (1956); B. H. Warmington, Carthage (1960).

25 Note E. Täubler, Die Vorgeschichte des zweiten punischen Krieges (1921), and Gelzer, M., Hermes 68 (1933) 157Google Scholar, with De Sanctis and Hallward (above, n. 24); consult F. W. Walbank, Comm. Polyb. I, 26, 167, 310, for full discussion and bibliography.

26 See, for example, Tenney Frank, Roman Imperialism (1914); J. Carcopino, Points de vue sur l'impérialisme romain (1934), reviewed at length by Last, JRS XXIV (1934), 56; S. Mazzarino, Introduzione alle guerre puniche (1947).

27 Kromayer, J. and Veith, G., Antike Schlachtfelder II–IV (1903–1931)Google Scholar and Heerwesen und Kriegführung der Griechen und Römer (1928); J. H. Thiel, Studies on the History of Roman Sea-power in Republican Times (1946); cf. F. E. Adcock, The Roman Art of War (1940); with H. H. Scullard, Scipio Africanus in the Second Punic War (1930); cf. W. Schur, Scipio Africanus (1927); E. Groag, Hannibal als Politiker (1929); R. M. Haywood, Studies on Scipio Africanus (1933).

28 G. Colin, Rome et la Grèce de 200 à 146 av.J.-C. (1905); T. Frank, Rom. Imp. ch. 8; Sanctis, De, St. Rom. IV, 1, 25Google Scholar; M. Holleaux, Rome, la Grèce et les monarchies hellénistiques (1921), CAH VII, ch. 26, and VIII, ch. 5–7, and Études d'épigraphie et d'histoire grecques IV–V (1952–1957); F. W. Walbank, Philip V of Macedon (1940), ch. 4; K.-E. Petzold, Die Eröffnung des zweiten römisch-maked. Krieges (1940); cf. Bickermann, E., Rev. Phil. 9 (1935), 1Google Scholar; McDonald, A. H., JRS XXVIII (1938), 153Google Scholar; Balsdon, J. P. V. D., JRS XLIV (1954), 37Google Scholar; and consult E. Taubler, Imperium Romanum (1913); Heuss, A., ‘Die volkerrechtlichen Grundlagen der römischen Aussenpolitikinrepub.Zeit,’ Klio, Beiheft 31 (1933)Google Scholar; H. E. Stier, Roms Aufstieg zur Weltmacht und die griechische Welt (1957).

29 H. H. Scullard, Roman Politics, 220–150 B.C. (1951); E. Badian, Foreign Clientelae, 264–70 B.C. (1958, with bibliography).

30 B. Niese, Geschichte der griech. und maked. Staaten (1893–1903); M. Rostovtzeff, Social and Economic History of the Hellenistic World (1941), and CAH VII, ch. 3–5; VII, ch. 19–20; IX, ch. 5; W. W. Tarn, Hellenistic Civilization (3rd ed., with G. T. Griffith, 1952), and CAH VII, ch. 3, 6, 22–3; IX, ch. 14 (Parthia). Among the special studies note W. S. Ferguson, Hellenistic Athens (1911), cf. J. Day, Economic History of Athens under Roman Domination (1942); F. W. Walbank, Aratos of Sicyon (1933) and Philip V (above, n. 28); W. Otto, Zur Geschichte der Zeit des 6 Ptolemäers (Abh. Bayer. Akad. Wiss. 1934); G. Daux, Delphes au 2e et au ler siècle 1937); A. Aymard, Les premiers rapports de Rome et de la confédération achaienne (1938); A. H. M. Jones, The Greek City (1940); S. Accame, Il dominio romano in Grecia (1946); E. V. Hansen, The Attalids of Pergamum (1947); D. Magie, Roman Rule in Asia Minor (1950); P. Meloni, Perseo (1953); P. M. Fraser and G. E. Bean, The Rhodian Peraea and Islands (1954), cf. H. H. Schmitt, Rom und Rhodos (1957) J. A. O. Larsen, Representative Government in Greek and Roman History (1955).

31 M. Gelzer, Die Nobilität der römischen Republik (1912), and Vom römischen Staat (1943); F. Münzer, Römische Adelsparteien und Adelsfamilien (1920); cf. Scullard and Badian, above, n. 29; A. von Premerstein, Vom Werden und Wesen des Prinzipats (Abh. Bayer. Akad. Wiss. 1937); R. Syme, The Roman Revolution (1939); cf. J. Vogt, Homo novus (1926); Afzelius, A., Class, et Med. 7 (1945), 150Google Scholar; note also R. Heinze, Vom Geist des Römertums (1938), and H. Drexler, Dignitas (1944).

32 M. Rostovtzeff, Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire (1926; 2nd ed., rev. P. M. Fraser, 1957); F. Heichelheim, Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Altertums (1938; rev. Eng. trans., Ancient Economic History 1958); T. Frank, Economic History of Rome (1920; 2nd ed., 1927), and Economic Survey of Ancient Rome I, ‘Rome and Italy of the Republic’ (1933), with CAH VIII, ch. 11.

33 H. A. Grueber, Coins of the Roman Republic in the B.M. (1910); W. Giesecke, Italia numismatica (1928); H. Mattingly, Roman Coins (1928) and (with E. S. G. Robinson) The Date of the Roman Denarius (1933); J. G. Milne, The Development of Roman Coinage (1937); E. A. Sydenham, Aes Grave (1926), and now The Coinage of the Roman Republic (1952, with bibliography); R. Thomsen, Early Roman Coinage (1957– ).

34 W. E. Heitland, Agricola (1921); L. Zancan, Ager publicus (1935); and now Tibiletti, G., ‘Il possesso dell'ager publicus,’ Athenaeum NS 26–7 (1948–1949)Google Scholar, cf. ib. 28 (1950), 183, and Congr. Internaz. Scienze Stor., Relazioni II (1955), 235 (with bibliography).

35 In general see the works cited above, nn. 20, 29, 31; and for an attempt at synthesis, McDonald, A. H., Cambr. Hist. Journ. 6 (1939), 124CrossRefGoogle Scholar, with JRS XXXIV (1944), 11.

36 Gabba, E., ‘Le origini dell'esercito professionale in Roma,’ Athenaeum NS 27 (1949), 173Google Scholar; R. E. Smith, Service in the Post-Marian Army (1958).

37 Kornemann, E., ‘Zur Geschichte der Gracchenzeit,’ Klio Beiheft I (1903)Google Scholar; A. H. J. Greenidge, History of Rome, 133–104 B.C. (1904); W. E. Heitland, The Roman Republic (1909); G. Cardinali, Studi Gracchani (1912); Fraccaro, P., ‘Studi sull' età dei Gracchi,’ St. Stor. Antiquità Class. 5–6 (1912–1913)Google Scholar, cf. Opuscula II (above, n. 3); Holmes, T. Rice, The Roman Republic I (1923)Google Scholar; F. Taeger, Tiberius Gracchus (1928); F. B. Marsh, History of the Roman World, 146–30 B.C. (1934; 2nd ed., rev. H. H. Scullard, 1953, with notes and bibliography); note Münzer, o.c. (above, n. 31), ch. 5; J. Carcopino, Autour des Gracques (1928); E. Gabba, Appiano e la storia delle guerre civili (1956).

38 H. Last, CAH IX, ch. 1–4, 6–7; J. Carcopino in Bloch and Carcopino, Histoire romaine II (ed. Glotz), pt. 1, reviewed at length by Last in JRS XXXIV (1944), 116.

39 K. Bilz, Die Politik des P. Corn. Scipio Aemilianus (1936); cf. H. H. Scullard, above, p. 59; A. Stein, Der römische Ritterstand (1927); H. Hill, The Roman Middle Class (1952); cf. E. G. Hardy, Roman Laws and Charters (1912); Balsdon, J. P. V. D., ‘History of the Extortion Court at Rome, 123–70 B.C.,’ Papers Brit. School Rome 14 (1938), 98CrossRefGoogle Scholar; on problems of the legislation consult the works above, n. 37, and now Broughton, Magistrates, with bibliography.

40 See above, n. 20; cf. Gabba, E., ‘Le origini della guerra sociale,’ Athenaeum NS 32 (1954), 41, 293Google Scholar; on Livius Drusus, Seymour, P. A., Eng. Hist. Rev. 29 (1914), 147Google Scholar.

41 See above, n. 31; M. A. Levi, La costituzione romana dai Gracchi a Giulio Cesare (1928); cf. J. L. Strachan-Davidson, Problems of the Roman Criminal Law (1912); Plaumann, G., ‘Das sogenannte Senatus consultum ultimum,’ Klio 13 (1913) 321CrossRefGoogle Scholar; on Populares, H. Last, CAH IX, 137, cf. Henderson, M. I., JRS XXXI (1941), 177Google Scholar; on Sallust, A. H. McDonald, Fifty Years Class. Schol., 391 (with bibliography); on the moral crisis, R. E. Smith, The Failure of the Roman Republic (1955).

42 H. Last, above, n. 38; consult W. Drumann-P. Groebe, Geschichte Roms (2nd ed., 1899–1929); Schur, W., ‘Das Zeitalter des Marius und Sulla,’ Klio Beiheft 46 (1942)Google Scholar; cf. on Sallust, Holroyd, M., JRS XVIII (1928), 1Google Scholar; De Sanctis, Problemi di storia antica (1932), ch. 8.

43 G. Bloch, ‘M. Aemilius Scaurus,’ Mélanges d'histoire ancienne (1909); F. W. Robinson, Marius, Saturninus and Glaucia (1912); Passerini, A. on Marius in Athenaeum, NS 12 (1934)Google Scholar, and Caio Mario (1941); Frank, T., Class. Journ. 50 (1955), 149Google Scholar; on the military reform, Schulten, A., Hermes 63 (1928), 240Google Scholar, and Gabba and Smith, above, n. 36; on problems of the legislation, see Balsdon and Broughton (as above, n. 39).

44 H. Last, CAH IX, ch. 6; J. Carcopino, Sylla ou la monarchie manquée (1931); C. Lanzani, L. Cornelio Silla dittatore (1936); cf. M. A. Levi, Silla (1924); A. Valgiglio, Silla e la crisi repubblicana (1956); note Balsdon, , ‘Sulla Felix,’ JRS XLI (1951), 1Google Scholar, and Gelzer,’ Cn. Pompeius Strabo,’ Vom römischen Staat II, 56; A. Schulten, Sertorius (1926); R. Gardner, CAH IX, ch. 7, § 4 (‘Sertorius’).

45 See above, nn. 20, 32; W. Warde Fowler, Social Life at Rome in the Age of Cicero (1909); E. Ciaceri, Cicerone e i suoi tempi (1926–30); W. Kroll, Die Kultur der ciceronischen Zeit (1933); cf. Syme, R., Roman Revolution 82, 286Google Scholar.

46 G. H. Stevenson, CAH IX, ch. 10, and Roman Provincial Administration (1939); J. Carcopino, La loi de Hiéron et les Romains (1919); A. Schulten, Numantia I (1914), and CAH VIII, ch. 10; S. Gsell, o.c. (above, n. 24) VII–VIII (1928); T. R. S. Broughton, The Romanization of Africa Proconsularis (1929); on the Eastern provinces, above, n. 30, with A. H. M. Jones, The Cities of the Eastern Roman Provinces (1937); cf. J. Hatzfeld, Les trafiquants italiens dans l'Orient hellénique (1919); W. A. Laidlaw, History of Delos (1933).

47 M. Rostovtzeff, Roman Empire (above, n. 32); T. Frank (ed.), Economic Survey of Ancient Rome III (1937) : Spain (J. J. Van Nostrand), Sicily (V. M. Scramuzza), La Gaule (A. Grenier); IV (1938) : Africa (R. M. Haywood), Greece (J. A. O. Larsen), Asia Minor (T. R. S. Broughton); cf. J. M. Cobban, Senate and Provinces, 78–49 B.C. (1935); note H. Fuchs, Der geistige Widerstand gegen Rom in der antiken Welt (1938).

48 Ed. Meyer, Caesars Monarchie und das Principal des Pompejus (2nd ed., 1919).

49 H. Strasburger, Caesars Eintritt in die Geschichte (1938); M. Gelzer, Cäsar der Politiker und Staatsman (2nd ed., 1941), an d Pompeius (2nd ed., 1949); J. van Ooteghem, Pompée le Grand (1954); Garzetti, A., ‘M. Licinio Crasso,’ Athenaeum, NS 19–20, 22–3 (1941–1945Google Scholar).

50 On Spartacus see T. Rice Holmes, Roman Republic 1, cf. J. Vogt, Struktur der antiken Sklavenkriege (1957); on Catiline, G. Boissier, La conjuration de Catilina (1905); E. G. Hardy, The Catilinarian Conspiracy (1924); L. Pareti, La congiura di Catilina (1935); E. Manni, Lucio Sergio Catilina (1939); on Mithridates, Rostovtzeff, CAH IX, ch. 5, and H. A. Ormerod and M. Cary, ib. ch. 8; H. A. Ormerod, Piracy in the Ancient World (1924). On Parthia see W. W. Tarn, CAH IX, ch. 14, and N. C. Debevoise, Political History of Parthia (1938). On Gaul, Jullian (above, n. 22), T. Rice Holmes, Ancient Britain (1907), and Caesar's Conquest of Gaul (2nd ed., 1911); cf. E. Täubler, Bellum Helveticum (1924). Note Boak, A. E. R., ‘The Extraordinary Commands from 80 to 48 B.C.,’ Amer. Hist. Review 24 (1918–1919), 14CrossRefGoogle Scholar; on imperium maius, Last, H., JRS XXXVII (1947), 160Google Scholar; Ehrenberg, V., Amer. Journ. Phil. 74 (1953), 113CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

51 E. G. Sihler, Cicero of Arpinum (1914); T. Petersson, Cicero (1920); note H. Strasburger, Concordia Ordinum (1931); J. Vogt, Ciceros Glaube an Rom (1935); Ch. Wirszubski, Libertas as a Political Idea at Rome (1950), and ‘Cicero's Cum Dignitate Otium’, JRS XLIV (1954), 1Google Scholar; E. Lepore, II princeps ciceroniano (1954); then R. Syme, Roman Revolution, and L. R. Taylor, Parly Politics in the Age of Caesar (1949).

52 J. Carcopino, L'impérialisme romain (above, n. 26) 89, and Histoire romaine II (ed. Glotz), pt. 2; F. E. Adcock, CAH IX, ch. 17; cf. A. Alföldi, Studien über Caesars Monarchie (1953); Raubitschek, A. E., JRS XLIV (1954), 65Google Scholar. On Caesar's legislation note E. G. Hardy, Some Problems in Roman History (1924); F. Vittinghoff, Römische Kolonisation und Bürgerrechtspolitik unter Caesar und Augustus (1953); cf. Rudolf and Sherwin-White (above, n. 20). On other questions of the period—including the terminal date of Caesar's Gallic command—consult Rice Holmes, Roman Republic III, and Marsh-Scullard (above, n. 37), with bibliography.

53 W. W. Tarn, CAH x, ch. 2–3, cf. R. Syme, o.c. ch. 19; H. Volkmann, Cleopatra (1958); note K. Scott, The Political Propaganda of 44–30 B.C. (Mem. Amer. Acad. Rome XI, 1933).

54 M. A. Levi, Ottaviano capoparte (1933); M. P. Charlesworth, CAH x, ch. 1–3.

55 Von Premerstein and Syme, above, n. 31; F. B. Marsh, The Founding of the Roman Empire (2nd ed., 1927); Holmes, T. Rice, The Architect of the Roman Empire I (1928)Google Scholar.