The objective of the present study was to investigate live weight (LW) gain, urinary nitrogen (UN) excretion and urination behaviour of dairy heifers grazing pasture, chicory and plantain in autumn and spring. The study comprised a 35-day autumn trial (with a 7-day acclimation period) and a 28-days spring trial (with a 7-day acclimation period). For each trial, 56 Friesian × Jersey heifers were blocked into five dietary treatments balanced for their LW and breeding worth (i.e. genetic merit of a cow for production and reproduction): 1·00 perennial ryegrass–white clover pasture (PA); 1·00 chicory (CH); 1·00 plantain (PL); 0·50 pasture + 0·50 chicory (PA + CH); and 0·50 pasture + 0·50 plantain (PA + PL). A fresh allocation of the herbage was offered every 3 days with allowance calculated according to feed requirement for maintenance plus gain of 1·0 kg LW/day. In both trials, LW gain was lower on CH than other treatments. In the spring trial, UN concentration and UN excretion were lower in CH and PL than other treatments. In autumn, a higher urination frequency was observed over the first 6 h after forage allocation in CH and PA + CH than other treatments. Data from the present study indicate that feeding CH alone limited heifer LW gain. However, heifers grazing swards containing chicory (CH and PA + CH) and plantain (PL and PA + PL) had the potential to lower nitrous oxide emissions and nitrate leaching from soil compared with heifers grazing PA, by reducing N loading in urine patches.

The use of chemicals to fertilize crops incurs economic and environmental costs and it is widely recognized that the current level of chemical fertilizer use is unsustainable in many intensive farming systems. Any methods that can reduce fertilizer input and still maintain acceptable yields would be of great benefit to both the farmer and the environment. The use of beneficial endophytes as crop inoculants may go some way towards improving crop yields beyond that achievable using fertilizer increases alone. Field trials were conducted over two seasons on three contrasting field sites to test the effects of fungal endophytes from a wild barley relative on three barley cultivars (Mickle, Planet and Propino). Seeds were either untreated or dressed with a consortium of four endophyte strains, and three levels of nitrogen (N) were applied to both treatments: full N, 50% N and 0 N. On the field site with the lowest overall N input, the endophyte treatment with 50% N restored yield for ‘Planet’ to that associated with untreated plants receiving the full N input. On the same site and with the same cultivar, endophyte treatment increased yield by 15% under full N, and by a mean 12% for all three cultivars with 50% N input. Over both seasons and all three sites, the endophyte treatment increased yield for the cultivar Planet by a mean of 9%. For the endophyte-associated increase in the variety Planet grain yield over the untreated trials strong correlations were found between increased yield and each of low rainfall, greater evaporation and greater number of degree days above the base. Furthermore, the efficacy of the endophytes was not removed by regular foliar fungicidal treatment. These results suggest that fungal endophytes can contribute to improving barley yield grown in low rainfall areas and under a range of fertilizer input regimes, provided that endophyte treatments are applied to compatible crop cultivars and sites.

Extensive sheep and goat farming is common in the rangelands of Gökçeada Island, NW Turkey. The aim of the current study was to investigate the behaviour of indigenous Gökçeada sheep over these rangelands and factors influencing their behavioural characteristics. Grubbing (with chisel ploughing to a depth of 20 cm), burning (the entire top part of plants) and cutting (10–15 cm stalk on the surface of the soil) were carried out on selected rangeland to reduce prickly burnet (Sarcopoterium spinosum (L.) Spach) from the vegetative covering, then forage crop seeds were sown to improve plant cover. Forty head of Gökçeada-bred sheep were placed in eight fenced plots (half seeded, half unseeded) on reclaimed and natural rangeland for 2 years. Sheep behaviour was observed for a period of 1 year. Each plot was arranged with a stocking rate of 2·67 sheep/ha and contained five sheep that grazed freely within each plot. Sheep behaviour was observed diurnally through direct observation by time sampling (10 min) and continuous sampling methods. During the period of 1 year, the observed sheep spent an average of 0·53 of their time grazing in daylight, 0·30 of their time in rangelands on other activities and 0·17 in the paddocks. Significant differences were observed in the time of grazing, resting, locomotion and rumination by season. The highest grazing ratio was noticed in spring while the lowest was in summer. Sheep exhibited walking behaviour 10·6 times/day. The sheep mostly (0·66) grazed on prickly burnet throughout the year although, when available, they tended to prefer herbaceous plants. The behaviour of sheep in the two natural (unreclaimed) plots was significantly different from those placed in other plots, mainly due to the mass of prickly burnet shrub found in the natural plots.

The aim of the current study was to assess the effects of adding Chlorella vulgaris algae at different levels on in vitro gas production (GP) of three total mixed rations (TMR) with different concentrate (C): maize silage (S) ratios (25C : 75S, 50C : 50S, 75C : 25S). Chlorella vulgaris was added at 0, 20, 40 and 80 mg/g dry matter (DM) of the TMR and total gas, methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) production were recorded after 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 24 and 48 h of incubation in three runs. Increasing concentrate portion in the TMR linearly increased the asymptotic GP and decreased the rate of GP without affecting the lag time. Addition of C. vulgaris at 20 mg/g DM to the 25C : 75S TMR increased the asymptotic GP, CH4, CO2 and GP at 48 h. Addition of C. vulgaris to the 50C : 50S TMR decreased the asymptotic GP and GP at 48 h. Higher CH4 production was observed at 48 h of incubation when C. vulgaris was included at (per g DM): 20 mg for the 25C : 75S ration, 40 mg for the 50C : 50S ration and 80 mg for the 75C : 25S ration. Inclusion of C. vulgaris linearly increased CH4 production for the 50C : 50S ration and increased CO2 production at 10 and 12 h of incubation for the 50C : 50S ration, whereas 20 and 40 mg C. vulgaris/g DM of the 75C : 25S TMR decreased CO2 production. The 25C : 75S TMR had the highest in vitro DM disappearance with C. vulgaris addition. Chlorella vulgaris addition was more effective with rations high in fibre content than those high in concentrates. It can be concluded that the optimal level of C. vulgaris addition was 20 mg/g DM for improved ruminal fermentation of the 25C : 75S TMR.

In order to describe the growth curves in Iranian Moghani sheep, five non-linear mixed mathematical equations (Brody, Negative exponential, Logistic, Gompertz and von Bertalanffy) were compared. After selecting the best-fitted model based on purely statistical criteria, variance components and genetic parameters for growth curve characteristics were estimated. The data set and pedigree information used in the current study were obtained from the breeding station of Moghani sheep and included 7905 weight records of 1581 lambs from birth to 400 days of age between the years 1994 and 2012 inclusive. Each model was fitted to body weight records for all lambs, males, females, single and twin lambs using the NLMIXED procedure in SAS and the parameters were estimated. Animal was considered as subject in the models. The non-linear mixed models were examined for goodness of fit using Akaike's information criterion (AIC) and residual variance. Marginal posterior distribution of genetic parameters and variance components were estimated using the Threshold Model programme. The Gibbs sampler was run for 1 000 000 rounds and the first 200 000 rounds were discarded as a burn-in period. Logistic model provided the best fit of growth curve in males, females, singles, twins and all lambs due to the lower values of AIC and residual variance compared with other models. Posterior mean estimates of direct heritabilities for asymptotic weight (A), initial animal weight (B) and maturation rate (K) parameters of Logistic model were 0·21, 0·24 and 0·29, respectively. Also, posterior mean estimates of maternal heritabilities for A, B and K were 0·27, 0·24 and 0·19, respectively. Estimate of correlation between direct and maternal genetic effects for A, B and K parameters were −0·33, −0·69 and −0·51, respectively. Estimates of direct genetic correlation between A–B, A–K and B–K were positive and equal to 0·19, 0·07 and 0·28, respectively. Also, maternal genetic correlations between A–B, A–K and B–K were positive and equal to 0·43, 0·34 and 0·55, respectively. In general, evaluation of different growth equations used in the current study indicated the potential of the non-linear functions to fit body weight records of Moghani sheep. Also, the results of the current study showed that improvement of growth curve parameters of Moghani sheep could be possible in selection programmes. Therefore, development of an optimal selection strategy to achieve a desired shape of growth curve through changing genetically the parameters of model would be very important.

The yields of spring barley during a medium-term (7 years) compost and slurry addition experiment and the soil carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) contents, bacterial community structure, soil microbial biomass and soil respiration rates have been determined to assess the effects of repeated, and in some cases very large, organic amendments on soil and crop parameters. For compost, total additions were equivalent to up to 119 t C/ha and 1·7 t N/ha and for slurry they were 25 t C/ha and 0·35 t N/ha over 7 years, which represented very large additions compared to control soil C and N contents (69 t C/ha and 0·3 t N/ha in the 0–30 cm soil depth). There was an initial positive response to compost and slurry addition on barley yield, but over the experiment the yield differential between the amounts of compost addition declined, indicating that repeated addition of compost at a lower rate over several years had the same cumulative effect as a large single compost application. By the end of the experiment it was clear that the addition of compost and slurry increased soil C and N contents, especially towards the top of the soil profile, as well as soil respiration rates. However, the increases in soil C and N contents were not proportional to the amount of C and N added, suggesting either that: (i) a portion of the added C and N was more vulnerable to loss; (ii) that its addition rendered another C or N pool in the soil more susceptible to loss; or (iii) that the C inputs from additional crop productivity did not increase in line with the organic amendments. Soil microbial biomass was depressed at the highest rate of organic amendment, and whilst this may have been due to genuine toxic or inhibitory effects of large amounts of compost, it could also be due to the inaccuracy of the substrate-induced respiration approach used for determining soil biomass when there is a large supply of organic matter. At the highest compost addition, the bacterial community structure was significantly altered, suggesting that the amendments significantly altered soil community dynamics.

Conventionally perennial ryegrass evaluations are conducted under simulated grazing studies to identify varieties with the best phenotypic performance. However, cut-plot environments differ greatly to those experienced on commercial farms as varieties are not exposed to the same stress levels in test environments. It could be argued that plot-based testing regimes provide little direction to plant breeders in the development of advanced varieties. Varietal phenotypic performance needs to be quantified in ‘commercial’ situations. The objective of the current study was to evaluate the phenotypic performance of a range of perennial ryegrass varieties under commercial farm conditions. Monocultures of 11 Irish Recommended List perennial ryegrass varieties were sown on 66 commercial farms throughout Ireland where performance was evaluated over a 3-year period from 2013 to 2015, inclusive. A linear mixed model was used to quantify variety effects on grassland phenotypic performance characteristics. No significant variety effect was estimated for total, seasonal or silage herbage production. Despite the lack of variety effects, pairwise comparisons found significant performance differences between individual varieties. Grazed herbage yield is of primary importance and was shown to be correlated strongly with total production (0.71); Grazed herbage yield differed significantly by variety, with a range of 1927 kg dry matter (DM)/ha between the highest and lowest performing varieties. Sward quality (dry matter digestibility [DMD]) and density were influenced by variety with a range of 44 g/kg DM for DMD and 0.7 ground score units between the highest and lowest performing varieties. Results of the current study show that on-farm evaluation is effective in identifying the most suitable varieties for intensive grazing regimes, and the phenotypic variance identified among varieties performance for many traits should allow for improved genetic gain in areas such as DM production, persistence and grazing efficiency.

Cobalt (Co) is essential for rumen microbial metabolism to synthesize methane, acetate and methionine. It also serves as a structural component of vitamin B12 (cobalamin), which functions as a coenzyme in energy metabolism. A study was conducted to determine if Co form (carbonate v. glucoheptonate) supplemented above the National Research Council requirements would improve digestibility of a low-quality forage diet and change serum cobalamin concentrations. Nineteen ruminally cannulated cows (577 ± 13 kg) were fed individually in a completely randomized experimental design. Cows were fed a grass hay diet that contained (79·2 g/kg crude protein, 565 g/kg total digestible nutrients, 633·2 g/kg neutral detergent fibre (NDF), 874·2 g/kg dry matter) at a rate of 0·02% of body weight on a as fed basis for a 62-day study, which consisted of three periods; acclimation (AC), treatment (TR) and residual (RE). Measurements taken in the AC period were used as covariates for analysis in the TR and RE periods. Cows were stratified by age (5 ± 0·4 years) and lactational history, and assigned to receive 12·5 mg supplemental Co in one of two forms: (1) 27·2 mg of Co carbonate (CC, n = 11 cows) or (2) 50 mg of Co glucoheptonate (CGH, n = 8 cows). Supplement was administered daily via a gelatin capsule placed directly into the rumen 2 h after feeding. During the last 96 h of each period, forage digestibility was measured using an in situ nylon bag technique. Blood samples were collected 4 and 6 h following feeding, and 24 h before the end of each period. A treatment × period interaction was detected for in situ organic matter (OM) disappearance at 96 h; (TR period: 684 and 708 ± 81 g/kg; RE period: 676 and 668 ± 75 g/kg, for CC and CGH, respectively). Once inclusion of Co in the CGH group was removed, OM disappearance was reduced by 4·01% compared with 0·82% in the CC cows. The NDF disappearance (OM basis) was less for the TR compared with the RE at 48 h (629 and 652 ± 39 g/kg, respectively). However, by 96 h NDF disappearance was greater for TR than the RE (704 and 689 ± 44 g/kg; respectively). No differences were detected for cobalamin serum concentrations or rate of fibre fermentation. The outcomes of the current research signify that there may be a slight residual effect of Co supplementation on fermentation; there was also an indication that Co source may enhance the overall extent of fermentation.

On steep slopes, grazing is associated with elevated physical activity. This is assumed to influence muscle metabolism, carcass and meat quality in beef cattle. However, there is a lack of experiments which allow distinguishing between physical activity and other factors of influence. In the present experiment, a setup was applied which excluded other factors as best as possible. Two groups of 12 Angus-sired suckling calves were each kept on high altitude pastures with either steep (whole area with about 40% inclination; S-calves) or with flat areas (0% inclination; F-calves). The two areas offered forage of similar nutritional quality. The calves, initially 18 ± 2·5 weeks old, were kept with their dams on the pastures for 11 weeks in a rotational grazing system. The calves were equipped with pedometers and rumination sensors to record physical activity and feeding behaviour, respectively. Slaughter took place on two dates immediately after the grazing period and carcass quality was assessed. Muscle fibre types were classified according to their contractile metabolism and post mortem (p.m.) protein degradation was quantified. The meat, aged for 21 days, was subjected to various physicochemical analyses and sensory evaluation. S-calves walked more steps and spent more time lying down than F-calves, whereas feeding behaviour was not affected by pasture inclination. The daily gains of S-calves were 10% lower compared with those of F-calves. Carcass characteristics were not influenced by pasture inclination. S-calves had a larger proportion of fast-twitch type IIX/B muscle fibres than F-calves. The opposite was observed for intermediate type IIA muscle fibres, whereas the proportion of slow-twitch type I muscle fibres was unaffected. Occasional differences were observed between S- and F-calves regarding indicators of p.m. proteolysis. In S-calves, compared with F-calves, meat from the longissimus thoracis muscle was juicier and showed a tendency to be of lighter colour, whereas meat from the biceps femoris muscle had a smaller shear force (24·5 v. 27·5 N in F-calves). In conclusion, 11 weeks’ exposure to environments forcing calves to exhibit different physical activities in a hypoxic environment was sufficient to cause adaptations in muscle metabolism and several, though small, differences in meat quality.

Heat stress (HS) is among the major limiting factors to growth of broilers. Heat stress also results in changes in the characteristics of the carcass, such as an increase in fat deposition. The molecular mechanisms responsible for fat deposition in broilers as a response to HS remain unknown. The current study aimed to describe the molecular mechanisms associated with the effects of high temperature and feed restriction due to chronic heat exposure at 32 °C, and to describe the resulting changes in the growth performance and carcass characteristics of the broilers at 21 and 42 days of age. In the current study, 441 male Cobb-500® broilers were subjected to three treatments that differed in rearing temperature and feeding regime: chronic HS fed ad libitum (HS/AL), thermoneutral environment fed ad libitum (TN/AL) and TN and pair-feeding on the feed intake (FI) of the heat-exposed group (TN/PF). HS increased fat content in the breast and wings and decreased fat content in the legs, but did not influence abdominal fat. These effects occurred regardless of reducing consumption induced by HS. Furthermore, HS, independently of reduced FI, increased liver sterol-regulatory element-binding protein-1 (SREBP-1) mRNA in both ages and growth hormone receptor (GHR) mRNA at 42days, whereas feed restriction reduced GHR mRNA only at 21days. In conclusion, increased fat content in the breast and wings was accompanied by a higher gene expression of GHR and SREBP-1, suggesting the involvement of both genes in the control of fat deposition in broilers exposed to HS.

Fifteen lactating Damascus goats (44 ± 0·8 kg body weight) were used in a completely randomized design to evaluate the supplementation of Chlorella vulgaris microalgae at 0 (Control), 5 (Alg05) and 10 g/goat/day (Alg10) for 12 weeks. Chlorella vulgaris treatments increased feed intake and apparent diet digestibility compared with a control diet. No differences were noted in the ruminal pH and ammonia-N concentrations, but increased concentration of total volatile fatty acids and propionic acid were observed in goats fed with Alg05 and Alg10. Diets of Alg05 and Alg10 increased serum glucose concentration but decreased glutamate-oxaloacetate transaminase, glutamate-pyruvate transaminase and cholesterol concentrations. Additionally, C. vulgaris supplementation moderately increased milk yield, energy corrected milk, total solids, solids not fat and lactose. Feeding Alg05 and Alg10 diets increased milk unsaturated fatty acids with concomitant increases in total conjugated linoleic acid concentrations. It is concluded that the daily inclusion of 5 or 10 g of C. vulgaris in the diets of Damascus goats increased milk yield and positively modified milk fatty acid profile.

Conversion of pig slurry to pellets is a desirable fertilizer option for farmers who want to mitigate environmental pollution from slurry accumulation. The goals of the current investigation were to determine the fertilizer properties of pig slurry solid fraction (SF) pellets and to assess its potential to enhance soil properties in order to reduce ammonia (NH3) volatilization and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Various parameters influence SF-based pellet fertilizer effectiveness: bulking agent use during composting, pellet diameter sizing and soil application type (superficially or incorporated into the soil). Two composts from the same pig slurry SF obtained from a screw press separator were prepared: pig SF compost without a bulking agent (SSFC) and pig SF compost with wood chips as the bulking agent (wood chip compost (WCC)). For each compost type, pellets of two different diameters (6 and 8 mm) were produced. A mesocosm experiment, conducted with maize plants, was used to test the fertilizer value of the considered pellets. In total, three compost fertilizers – SSFC, WCC and nitrogen: phosphorus: potassium mineral fertilizer 15 : 15 : 15, plus one unfertilized control treatment – were applied at the same N rate (equivalent to 200 kg/ha) using two different methods (surface and soil incorporation). After 65 days, above-ground biomass, roots and soil samples were collected and analysed. Subsequently, a second mesocosm study was undertaken to measure NH3 and GHG emissions released from pellet fertilization. Ammonia volatilization was determined immediately after pellet application, while carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions were monitored for 57 days. Study results indicated that both pellet types were effective slow-release fertilizers for maize. Additionally, three actions seemed to make the nutrients contained in pig SF compost pellets more available to plants: addition of a bulking agent before composting, use of small diameter pellets and soil incorporation of the fertilizer.

To assess the impact of farm management on herd fertility, a survey of 105 beef farms in Northern Ireland was conducted to establish the relationship between management variables and fertility. Each herd's average calving interval (CI) and the proportion of cows with a CI > 450 days (extended calving interval, ECI) was calculated to establish herd fertility. The relationship between each response variable (CI and proportion ECI) and each explanatory variable (respondents’ answers to questionnaire) was examined using univariate linear regression analyses. All response variables found to be associated with the explanatory variables were modelled against each group in turn using a fully automated multivariate stepwise regression algorithm employing the method of forward selection with backward elimination. The optimum 365-day CI and a proportion of 0 cows per hundred calved ECI targets were not widely attained in the current study. The distribution of CI and proportion ECI in the current study suggests more realistic targets would be a 379-day CI and 5 cows per hundred calved with ECI in commercial beef breeding herds. Six management factors were found to be associated with herd fertility: herd vaccination, bull selection, fertility management, breeding female management, perception of extension service (rural education provided by the government) and record keeping. It was found that respondents who vaccinated cows had a reduction of 5 cows per hundred calved in the proportion of cows with ECI, and as the number of vaccines administered to a cow increased, the CI decreased. Regular vaccination of breeding bulls was associated with a 9-day reduction in CI. Bull selection strategy had several associations with herd fertility; most notable was that respondents who used visual selection rather than estimated breeding values (EBVs) to select bulls were found to have a 15-day longer CI and 7 cows per hundred calved higher proportion of cows with ECI. For each 0·01 increase in the proportion of cows served by artificial insemination, CI increased by 0·16 days. Respondents who rated their beef breeding herd fertility as ‘very good’ had lower ECI and CI than those who rated beef breeding herd fertility as poor or satisfactory. Condition scoring of cows at weaning lowered ECI by 5 cows per hundred calved. Those who perceived the extension service to be very useful had the lowest CI and lowest ECI. Respondents who did not keep a record of CI to assess herd fertility had an 11-day longer CI and 6 cows per hundred calved higher proportion ECI than those who did not. In conclusion, the survey found a number of important variables linked to improved fertility including selecting sires based on EBVs and using a robust vaccination programme.

Genetic parameters for visual assessment traits measured at 487 days of age (body structure (BS), finishing precocity (FP) and muscling (MS)), body weight at 450 days of age (W450), age at first calving (AFC), heifer pregnancy (HP) and stayability (STAY, i.e. the probability of a cow to produce at least three calves before reaching 76 months of age) were estimated in Nellore cattle, seeking to include these traits in the selection criteria for dams. The statistical models included additive genetic and residual random effects using single- and two-trait Bayesian analyses. The average heritability estimates were equal to 0·37 for BS, 0·42 for FP, 0·37 for MS and 0·48 for W450. Age at first calving had a low average heritability estimate (0·13), while HP and STAY estimates were higher (0·36 and 0·24, respectively). The genetic correlations between AFC, HP and STAY with visual assessment traits and body weight were favourable, indicating that selecting animals with higher BS, FP, MS and W450 values will result in the indirect selection of animals with lower AFC and successful scores for HP and STAY. The selection of heifers that present an early pregnancy should anticipate AFC and improve HP in the current herd. Except for AFC, the heritability and genetic correlation estimates between the studied traits justify their inclusion in the selection criteria of the Nellore breeding programme.

The purpose of the current study was to evaluate the effect of different levels of crude glycerine (CG, 810·9 g glycerol/kg) replacing dry ground maize on intake, digestibility, microbial nitrogen (N) synthesis and N utilization in grazing beef cattle. Five Nellore bulls (332 ± 29·6 kg initial body weight (BW)) were used in a 5 × 5 Latin square design. The animals grazed five Marandu grass (Urochloa brizantha cv. Marandu) paddocks of approximately 0·32 ha. Five supplements were evaluated: mineral supplementation (control, only ad libitum access to a mineral mixture) and 4 g of protein-energy supplementation/kg of BW with four levels of CG (0, 330, 660 and 1000 g/kg) replacing dry ground maize. Bulls that received protein-energy supplementation had greater organic matter (OM) pasture and digested OM (DOM) intakes than the control. No differences were observed among CG levels with regard to OM pasture, neutral detergent fibre and DOM intakes. However, ether extract intake increased linearly as CG levels increased. Protein-energy supplementation enhanced efficiency of microbial N synthesis, N balance and ammonia concentration, but they were not influenced by the CG levels. In conclusion, partial or total replacement of dry ground maize by CG in protein-energy supplements for grazing beef cattle exerted no changes on pasture intake, digestibility and N utilization. Therefore, the use of CG as an energy source in supplements for grazing cattle can be recommended.

The objective of the current study was to quantify the dry matter (DM) digestibility, and total ash (TA) and mineral release from 12 concentrate and 12 forage feedstuffs commonly fed to cattle using in situ and in vitro methods. Concentrate and forage feedstuffs were incubated in the rumen of ruminally cannulated beef bulls at eight different time points. Two different trials were conducted for concentrates and forages, with maximum incubation time of 72 and 120 h, respectively. The residue from samples incubated for 24 h were treated with pepsin and hydrochloric acid to simulate abomasum digestion in vitro. The initial and residual samples after in situ and in vitro incubations were measured. An asymptotic model was adopted for estimating solubility of minerals, disappearance rate of DM, and TA. Correlations between feedstuff contents and mineral release were evaluated. Residual samples from rumen fermentation after 24 h were incubated in simulated abomasal conditions and mineral release was measured. Cluster analysis was performed to group feedstuffs in relation to TA release. Large variability was observed between concentrate and forage feedstuffs for all constituents analysed. Large variability was observed for the effective ruminal degradation of TA and individual mineral release. When feedstuffs were clustered according to the immediately soluble fraction (‘a’), the insoluble by potentially releasable fraction (‘b’) and the release rate of ‘b’ (‘kd’,/h) estimates of TA ruminal release, four groups were identified. From group ‘1’ to group ‘4’, an increase in the soluble fraction and a reduction in both moderate releasable fraction and release rate was observed. Neutral detergent fibre content had a negative correlation with mineral release in the rumen, while mineral content had a positive correlation. These results demonstrate that mineral solubilization in the digestive tract is not the limiting factor for mineral absorption from the feedstuffs tested.

A detailed survey was undertaken to assess the rate of production and current management practices on Irish sheep farms and quantify their associations with flock size and ewe breed type. A total of 39 questions relating to the farm production system and farm management practices were devised, including: producer age, location, farm size, livestock numbers and type, in addition to flock management data such as flock breeding policy, lamb finishing strategy, flock health, lambing date, winter housing and feeding practices. A total of 717 sheep producers were surveyed across 45 different discussion groups. The surveyed respondents were sub-divided into four groups depending on flock size (very small, small, medium and large) and into three groups depending on ewe breed type (maternal, terminal and hill). The average survey respondent was 48 years old, with a flock size of 150 breeding ewes on a farm size of 58 ha. The average stocking rates were 6·55 and 3·14 ewes/ha and weaning rates were 1·44 and 1·02 lambs per ewe joined to the ram for the lowland and hill flocks, respectively. Relative to very small flocks (<62 ewes), larger flocks (>190 ewes) had higher stocking rates (6·98 v. 5·66 ewes/ha) and ewe to ram ratios (40 v. 30), and tended to lamb later in the year. The rate of technology adoption such as faecal egg sampling and pregnancy scanning was greater on larger flocks compared with smaller flocks. Flocks with maternal ewe breeds had higher scanning and weaning rates, and drafted a greater proportion of lambs off grass compared with flocks with terminal and hill ewe breeds. Flocks with maternal and terminal ewe breed types were more likely to winter house ewes, lamb indoors, test silage quality and have a handling unit compared with flocks with hill-type ewe breeds. Results from the present study provide a bank of knowledge on current Irish sheep industry performance and show that flock size and ewe breed type have a significant impact on key flock performance variables.

Management of beef suckler cattle herds requires a difficult but vitally important balance between farm profits, animal health and welfare and sustainable food production. A dynamic programming (DP) model was implemented to investigate the consequences of replacement and management decisions on the interactions and possible trade-offs between animal welfare, fertility and profitability in breeding beef suckler cattle herds. The model maximized profit from the current cow and all successors by identifying the best keep/replace decision. The 150 states incorporated in the DP model were all combinations of: ten cow-parity, five calving periods including one barren state (five in total) as fertility indicators and three body condition scores at weaning as an animal welfare indicator reflecting feeding and nutritional conditions of animals. Statistical models were fitted to data from a breeding suckler cattle herd, consisting of performance records of 200 cattle over 5 years, to parameterize the DP model. Estimated parameters used in the DP model were: (i) probabilities of transitions between states and (ii) probability of involuntary culling. These estimates were used in the form of conditional probabilities of successful or failed (as a result of involuntary culling) transitions to the next state. In addition, statistical models were used to estimate probability of calving difficulty. There was strong evidence (P< 0·001) that parity affected calving difficulty and weak evidence (P = 0·067) that parity affected the incidence of involuntary culling. The DP model outcomes indicated that cows calving very early, i.e. those who conceived in the first 21 days after artificial insemination, showed reduced frequencies of calving difficulty as well as voluntary culling, and so gave better financial returns than late-calving cows and barren cows. As a result, fewer replacements were needed that reduced the frequency of calving difficulty, further implying a win–win scenario for both profit and welfare. In contrast, in late-calving animals, the frequency of calving difficulty increased and they were less profitable and more prone to be culled. Results of sensitivity analysis showed that the optimum voluntary culling rate was sensitive to commodity market prices. These findings suggest well-informed nutrition and reproduction management could deliver a win–win outcome for profit and animal welfare.