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Anti-Terrorism Criminal Law: Where Emergency Regime Meets the Investigative Agenda
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 10 January 2023
Abstract
This article aims to show how reform of the law on terrorism not only has the power to create new criminal procedures, it can also create a distinct, parallel field operating alongside general criminal law. This parallel configuration presents certain unique features and processes which merit their own typology – namely, anti-terrorism criminal law (ATCL). First, the article discusses how states have responded to terrorism through reform of four key arenas: military law, immigration law, administrative law and criminal law. Comparison is then drawn between the United States and Israel in their respective approaches, showing that Israel has executed far more sweeping and significant reforms over the last four decades, mainly in criminal procedure. Examples are given to illustrate how Israel's evolving anti-terrorism legislation – and specifically, the new Counter-Terrorism Law of 2016 – changed the criminal procedural landscape to such a degree that it constituted the new field of ATCL. I contend that this move was anti-liberal in its definition and targeting of terror suspects, and in its pursuit of emergency aims and intelligence gathering rather than liberal criminal law objectives. Further, I show that liberal theory struggles to explain the integrated change model that Israel has implemented in its counter-terrorism reforms, and that the theoretical framings of Carl Schmitt and Michel Foucault may explain it more effectively.
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- Copyright © The Author(s), 2023. Published by Cambridge University Press in association with the Faculty of Law, the Hebrew University of Jerusalem
References
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11 US Code, Title 18, Pt II, Ch 207, §3142, 3144. A material witness warrant is a powerful and sometimes controversial investigative tool because it may result in the detention of a person for days, weeks or sometimes months, even though there may not be sufficient evidence to support charging them with any crime.
12 Imprisonment of Unlawful Combatant Law, 2002 (Israel).
13 Citizenship and Entry into Israel Law (Temporary Provision), 2003 (Israel).
14 Order on Security Instruction [Consolidated Version] (Judea and Samaria) (No 1651), 2007 (Israel).
15 This situation is analogous to the state claiming that, as it is hard to collect evidence in sexual assault cases and as there are usually no witnesses to these crimes, it has decided that rape suspects cannot meet with their attorneys, their interrogations will not be recorded, their detention will be longer than usually allowed, and the court can hold a hearing without their presence.
16 On different categories see Daphne Barak-Erez, ‘Terrorism Law between the Executive Model and the Legislative Model’ (2009) 57 American Journal of Comparative Law 877, 877–79.
17 George P Fletcher, ‘Two Kinds of Legal Rules: A Comparative Study of Burden-of-Persuasion Practices in Criminal Cases’ (1968) 77 Yale Law Review 880, 919–25; Judith Resnik, ‘Failing Faith: Adjudicatory Procedure in Decline’ (1986) 53 University of Chicago Law Review 494, 526–34.
18 Sigal Shahav, Anti-Terrorism Criminal Law (Nevo 2019) 162.
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21 On the emergency aspect see Oren Gross, ‘Cutting Down Trees: Law-Making under the Shadow of Great Calamities’ in Ronald J Daniels, Patrick Macklem and Kent Roach (eds), The Security of Freedom: Essays on Canada's Anti-Terrorism Bill (University of Toronto Press 2001) 39, 43–45; Oren Gross and Fionnuala Ní Aoláin, Law in Times of Crisis: Emergency Powers in Theory and Practice (Cambridge University Press 2006) 365–421. For example, on the emergency aspect in Ireland see Fionnuala Ní Aoláin, ‘The Fortification of an Emergency Regime’ (1996) 59 Albany Law Review 1353, 1384. On emergency and normality see Ernst Fraenkel, The Dual State: A Contribution to the Theory of Dictatorship (Oxford University Press 1941); Nasser Houssain, The Jurisprudence of Emergency: Colonialism and the Rule of Law (University of Michigan Press 2003); John Ferejohn and Pasquale Pasquino, ‘The Law of Exception: A Typology of Emergency Powers’ (2004) 2 International Journal of Constitutional Law 210; Bruce Ackerman, ‘The Emergency Constitution’ (2004) 113 Yale Law Journal 1029, 1041; Antonio Negri, ‘Insurgencies: Constituent Power and the Modern State’ (University of Minnesota Press 1999); Kim Lane Scheppele, ‘Law in a Time of Emergency: States of Exception and the Temptations of 9/11’ (2004) 6 University of Pennsylvania Journal of Constitutional Law 1001; Shai Lavi, ‘The Use of Force beyond the Liberal Imagination: Terror and Empire in Palestine, 1947’ (2006) 7 Theoretical Inquiries in Law 199.
22 Shahav (n 18).
23 See sources in n 19.
24 ibid.
25 Weber (n 20); Bruun (n 20); Shivakumar (n 20).
26 Weber (n 20); Bruun (n 20); Shivakumar (n 20).
27 George P Fletcher, Rethinking Criminal Law (Oxford University Press 2000) 575–80.
28 Mirjan Damaska, ‘Presentation of Evidence and Factfinding Precision’ (1975) 123 University of Pennsylvania Law Review 1083, 1092–93 (Damaska (1975a); Mirjan Damaska ‘Structures of Authority and Comparative Criminal Procedure’ (1975) 84 Yale Law Journal 480, 523 (Damaska (1975b); Glanville Williams, The Proof of Guilt: A Study of the English Criminal Trial (Stevens & Sons 1963); Frederick Pollock and Maitland F William, The History of the English Law (2nd edn, Cambridge University Press 1968) 670; Mirjan R Damaska, The Faces of Justice and State Authority: A Comparative Approach to the Legal Process (Yale University Press 1986).
29 Stefan Trechsel, ‘Why Must Trials Be Fair?’ (1997) 31 Israel Law Review 94, 95–96; Richard Saphire, ‘Specifying Due Process Values: Towards a More Responsive Approach to Procedural Protection’ (1978) 127 University of Pennsylvania Review 111, 114–17; Larry Alexander, ‘Are Procedural Rights Derivative Substantive Rights?’ (1998) 17 Law and Philosophy 19, 26–31.
30 Stumpf (n 6); Demleitner (2002) (n 6); Demleitner (2004) (n 6); Miller (n 6); Tumlin (n 6).
31 Andrew Ashworth and Lucia Zedner, Preventive Justice (Oxford University Press 2014).
32 RA Duff, Punishment, Communication, and Community (Studies in Crime and Public Policy) (Oxford University Press 2001); Fletcher (n 17).
33 Albert Venn Dicey, Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution (10th edn, Macmillan 1959) 287–88; William E Scheuerman, ‘Survey Article: Emergency Powers and the Rule of Law After 9/11’ (2006) 14 Journal of Political Philosophy 61, 74–81; Jules Lobel, ‘Emergency Power and the Decline of Liberalism’ (1989) 98 Yale Law Journal 1385, 1385–400.
34 Negri (n 21); Scheppele (n 21).
35 Lavi (n 21); Houssain (n 21).
36 Judith N Shklar, ‘Political Theory and the Rule of Law’ in Allan C Hutchinson & Patrick Monahan (eds), The Rule of Law: Ideal or Ideology (Transnational 1987) 1, 1–3.
37 Rawls (1971), Rawls (1993) (n 19).
38 Jürgen Habermas, ‘Between Facts and Norms: An Author's Reflections’ (1999) 76 Denver Law Review 937, 938–39.
39 Karl Marx, ‘On the Jewish Question’ (1978) The Marx Engles Reader; Mark Tushnet, ‘An Essay on Rights’ (1984) 62 Texas Law Review 1363.
40 Charles Taylor, ‘Atomism’ in Alxis Kontos (ed), Powers Possessions and Freedom: Essays in Honour of C.B. Macpherson (University of Toronto Press 1979) 57; Michael J Sandel, Liberalism and the Limits of Justice (Cambridge University Press, 1982); Amy Gutmann, ‘Communitarian Critics of Liberalism’ in Debates in Contemporary Political Philosophy: An Anthology (Routledge, in association with the Open University 2003) 182.
41 Carl Schmitt, Political Theology: Four Chapters on the Concept of Sovereignty (The MIT Press 1985); Oren Gross, ‘The Normless and Exceptionless Exception: Carl Schmitt's Theory of Emergency Powers and the “Norm-Exception” Dichotomy’ (2000) 21 Cardozo Law Review 1825, 1825–30; Chantal Mouffe (ed), The Challenge of Carl Schmitt (Verso 1999); John P McCormick, Carl Schmitt's Critique of Liberalism (Cambridge University Press 1997).
42 David Dyzenhaus, ‘Schmitt v. Dicey: Are States of Emergency Inside or Outside the Legal Order?’ (2006) 27 Cardozo Law Review 2005, 2007.
43 Carl Schmitt, The Concept of the Political (George Schwab and Leo Strauss trans, Rutgers University Press 1976) 26, 33, 35; Schmitt (n 41) 6.
44 Giorgio Agamben, Homo sacer (Einaudi 2005) 17–23.
45 Schmitt (n 41) Chs 1–2.
46 Schmitt (n 41); Gross (n 41).
47 ECtHR, A and Others v United Kingdom, App no 3455/05, 19 February 2009, para 55.
48 Secretary of State for the Home Department v AF and Others [2009] EWCA Civ 1148, [2008] UKHL 28.
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50 Michel Foucault, Security, Population, Territory: Lectures at the College de France 1977–1978 (Palgrave Macmillan 2007); Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality (Vintage Books 1978) 7.
51 Foucault (1978) (n 50) 7–20.
52 Foucault (2007) (n 50) 92–94.
53 Criminal Procedure Law, 1965 (Israel), s 27A.
54 Criminal Procedure Law (Enforcement Authorities – Arrests), 1996 (Israel).
55 Haya Sandberg, Interpreting the Detention Law (Hebrew University of Jerusalem 2001) 19, 39.
56 Criminal Procedure Law (Enforcement Authorities – Arrests), 1996 (Israel); Criminal Procedure Law (Consolidated Version), 1982 (Israel).
57 Criminal Procedure Bill (Enforcement Authorities – Detention, Arrest and Release), 1995 (Israel), s 31(6).
58 Criminal Procedure Law (Enforcement Authorities – Arrests), 1996 (Israel), s 35(b).
59 HCJ 306/99 Shin Bet v Chen (15 January 1999), para 5. In this case the court permitted the lawyer to pass a letter to the security-suspect client, instead of holding a meeting.
60 Criminal Procedure Law (Interrogation of Suspects), 2002 (Israel), s 17.
61 On 31 May 2010, a flotilla of six vessels advanced towards the coastline of Israel, carrying approximately 700 persons. The largest of the ships, the Mavi Marmara, had approximately 29 crew members and 561 passengers on board. IDF forces boarded the Mavi Marmara and took control of the vessel, encountering violent resistance. When the conflict ended, it was found that nine of the ship's passengers had been shot dead, and 55 passengers and nine IDF soldiers were wounded. The investigation of the Marmara suspects was not recorded.
62 Public Commission to Examine the Maritime Incident of 31 May 2010, Turkel Commission, Second Report, February 2013, https://www.gov.il/BlobFolder/generalpage/alternatefiles/he/turkel_eng_b1-474_0.pdf.
63 Team for the Review and Implementation of the Second Report of the Public Commission for the Examination of the Maritime Incident of May 31st, 2010, regarding Israel's Mechanisms for Examining and Investigating Complaints and Claims of Violations of the Law of Armed Conflict According to International Law, Report, August 2015, https://www.gov.il/BlobFolder/news/spoketurkelcommittee210915/he/documents_reporteng.pdf.
64 Criminal Procedure Law (Detainee Suspected of Security Offence) (Temporary Provision), 2006 (Israel).
65 The 2006 Law initially referred only to Gaza but, following a review, it was changed to cover all security offences in Israel; see also Counter-Terrorism Bill, 2015 Protocols, https://main.knesset.gov.il/Activity/Legislation/Laws/Pages/LawBill.aspx?t=LawReshumot&lawitemid=568876 (eg, protocol of 23 November 2015) (in Hebrew).
66 Memorandum of the Criminal Procedure Law (Enforcement Powers – Special Instructions for the Investigation of Security Offences by a Non-Resident) (Temporary Order), 2005 (Israel).
67 Powers to detain a person for 96 hours without judicial review; extend the detention of a suspect of security offences for up to 20 days in one order; and detain a person for 35 days for questioning without indictment. It was valid for one year from the date of its enactment and was extended until it found a way into the Anti-Terrorism: Memorandum of the Criminal Procedure Law (n 66) s 2(1), 2(5); Combating Terrorism Law, 2016 (Israel), s 47.
68 There were already rules, such as the presumption of dangerousness of security suspects and the extension of the period for bringing a security detainee to court: Criminal Procedure Law (Consolidated Version), 1982 (Israel).
69 Criminal Procedure Law (A Detainee Suspected of Security Offence) (Temporary Provision), 2006 (Israel), ss 4–5.
70 ibid s 3(c) Protocols; Counter-Terrorism Bill, 2015 Protocols (n 65) (eg, protocol of 23 November 2015 protocol) (in Hebrew).
71 HCJ 8823/07 A v State of Israel (11 February 2010), para 35.
72 Government Bill 539, Draft Criminal Procedure Law (Detention of the Suspect in a Security Offence) (Temporary Order) (Amendment No. 2) 2010, https://www.nevo.co.il/Law_word/law15/memshala-539.pdf (in Hebrew).
73 Combating Terrorism Law, 2016 (Israel), s 47.
74 Criminal Procedure Law (A Detainee Suspected of Security Offence) (Temporary Order), 2006 (Israel), s 5C(b).
75 Criminal Procedure Law (Interrogation of Suspects), 2002 (Israel), s 17.
76 Shklar (n 36).
77 On liberal principles see Antony Duff, Intention, Agency and Criminal Liability: Philosophy of Action and the Criminal Law (Blackwell 1990) 116–19; George P Fletcher, ‘The Storrs Lectures: Liberals and Romantic at War: The Problem of Collective Guilt’ (2002) 111 Yale Law Journal 1499; Damaska (1975a) (n 28); Damaska (1975b) (n 28); Williams (n 28); Pollock and William (n 28); Damaska (1986) (n 28); Trechsel (n 29); Saphire (n 29); Alexander (n 29).
78 Penal Code Bill (Amendment No 61) (Rape), 2001 (Israel).
79 ibid.
80 Penal Code Bill (Amendment No 98) (Protection of a Residence, Property, Business, Fenced Farm and Vehicle), 2008 (Israel).
81 Penal Code Bill (Amendment No 49) (Domestic Violence), 1996 (Israel); Penal Code Bill (Amendment No 64) (Damage and Injury in Aggravated Circumstances of a Family Member), 2001 (Israel).
82 Counter-Terrorism Bill, 2015 (Israel), Explanatory Notes, para 1.
83 Counter-Terrorism Law, 2016 (Israel), ss 2(3)(c)(2)(c), 23: ‘A person who gives a terrorist organization a service or who provides a terrorist with means, … to assist the organization's activity or progress, is liable to imprisonment for five years, unless he has proved that he was not aware that the organization is a terrorist organization’. In this respect ‘being aware’ includes having a suspicion yet refraining from inquiring: s 2(3)(c)(2)(c).
84 Counter-Terrorism Bill, 2015 (Israel), Explanatory Notes, paras 1, 4.
85 ibid para 2.
86 Antony Duff, Citizens, Enemies, Outlaws: The Criminal Law and Its Addressees, paper presented at Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 21 May 2008 (on file with author).
87 Markus Dubber, ‘The Citizen in Penal Law’ (2010) 13 New Criminal Law Review: An International and Interdisciplinary Journal 190, 191–93.
88 Carlos Gómez-Jara Díez, ‘Enemy Combatants versus Enemy Criminal Law: An Introduction to the European Debate regarding Enemy Criminal Law and its Relevance to the Anglo-American Discussion on the Legal Status of Unlawful Enemy Combatants’ (2008) 11 New Criminal Law Review: An International and Interdisciplinary Journal 529, 530–32. This literature is based on Günther Jakobs’ theory of criminal law: Günther Jakobs, ‘Imputation in Criminal Law and the Conditions for Norm Validity’ (2004) 7 Buffalo Criminal Law Review 490.
89 Military Court of Appeals 56/00, Qawasma v The Military Prosecutor (5 June 2000). In this case, the Court decided that passive membership of a terrorist organisation could also constitute membership.
90 Counter-Terrorism Law, 2016 (Israel), s 2.
91 ibid.
92 ibid s 37.
93 Fionnuala Ní Aoláin, ‘The Fortification of an Emergency Regime’ (1996) 59 Albany Law Review 1353, 1384; Gross (n 21); Gross and Ní Aoláin (n 21).
94 Stuntz (2002a) (n 3) 2138; Stuntz (2002b) (n 3); Weisselberg (n 3).
95 Daphne Barak-Erez, ‘A Constitution for States of Emergency’ in Asher Grunis, Eliezer Rivlin and Michael Karayanni (eds), Shlomo Levin Book: Essays in Honor of Justice Levin (2013) 671, 692, 696.
96 Criminal Procedure Law (A Detainee Suspected of Security Offence) (Temporary Order), 2006 (Israel).
97 Ashworth and Zedner (n 31) 51–72.
98 Shahav (n 18) 116.
99 ibid 122.
100 Neal Katyal and Laurence Tribe, ‘Waging War, Declaring Guilt: Trying the Military Tribunals’ (2002) 111 Yale Law Journal 1259, 1308.
101 Norman K Denzin and Yvonna S Lincoln, ‘Introduction: The Discipline and Practice of Qualitative Research’ in Norman K Denzin and Yvonna S Lincoln (eds), Handbook of Qualitative Research 1 (SAGE 2011).
102 Rasul v Bush 542 US 466 (2004).
103 Hamdan v Rumsfeld 548 US 557 (2006).
104 Hamdi v Rumsfeld 542 US 507 (2004).
105 David Dyzenhaus, ‘The Permanence of Temporary: Can Emergency Powers be Normalized?’ in Ronald Daniels, Patrick Macklem and Kent Roach (eds), The Security of Freedom: Essays on Canada's Anti-Terrorism Bill (University of Toronto Press 2001) 21, 31; Finnie (n 4) 2–3.
106 Goldstein, Abraham S, ‘The State and the Accused: Balance of Advantage in Criminal Procedure’ (1960) 69 Yale Law Journal 1149–99CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Packer, Herbert L, ‘Two Models of the Criminal Process’ (1964) 113 University of Pennsylvania Law Review 1CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
107 Dicey (n 33) 287–88; Scheuerman (n 33); Lobel (n 33).
108 Schmitt (n 41); Gross (n 41); Mouffe (n 41); McCormick (n 41).
109 Schmitt (n 41) 15 (‘the rule proves nothing; the exception proves everything: it confirms not only the rule but also its existence, which derived only from the exception’).
110 Sigal Shahav, ‘Anti-Terror Criminal Law’, PhD dissertation, Tel Aviv University, Israel (2016).
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112 For restrictions on state power in the liberal legal community see Duff (n 32) 35–36.
113 Michel Foucault, Society Must Be Defended: Lectures at the College de France 1975–1976 (Arnold I Davidson ed, David Macey trans, Picador 1997); Michel Foucault, ‘Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison’ (1977) 84 American Journal of Sociology 1508, 1508–10; Foucault (n 50); Hubert L Dreyfus and Paul Rainbow, Michel Foucault: Beyond Structuralism and Hermeneutics (Chicago Press 1982) 217, 220–21.
114 Kamin, Sam, ‘How the War on Terror May Affect Domestic Interrogations: The 24 Effect’ (2007) 10 Chapman Law Review 693Google Scholar.