^{page 171 note 1} The Geneva Conventions of August 12 1949 reprint, Geneva, ICRC, 1970, p. 39 Google Scholar; International Red Cross Handbook, eleventh edition, Geneva, ICRC-League of Red Cross Societies, 1971, pp. 43–44 Google Scholar; The Laws of Armed Conflicts, a Collection of Conventions, Resolutions and other Documents, edited by Schindler (Dietrich) and Toman (Jiri), Leiden, A. W. Sijthoff, and Geneva, Henry Dunant Institute, 1973, p. 310; United Nations-Treaty Series vol. 75, p. 56.Google Scholar

^{page 171 note 2} As customary, we use “red cross” (with lower case) when referring to the emblem and “Red Cross” (initial capitals) for the institution. However, when quoting from documents we have retained the manner of the document even if it did not follow current practice.

¹ “Unpublished documents relative to the foundation of the Red Cross, Minutes of the Committee of Five”, published in Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, English supplement, Vol. II, No. 3, 03 1949, pp. 123–140; p. 127 (Emphasis added).Google Scholar

² Compte rendu de la Conférence Internationale réunie à Genève les 26, 27, 28 et 29 octobre 1863 pour étudier les moyens de pourvoir à l'insuffisance du service sanitaire dans les armées en campagne, 2nd ed., Geneva, ICRC, 1904, p. 17.Google Scholar

³ Idem, p. 93.

⁴ Idem, p. 93.

⁵ Idem, pp. 93–94.

⁶ It was probably desired to avoid confusion with the white flag of negotiation. On the origin of the red cross sign see Pictet, Jean S.: The Sign of the Red Cross, Geneva, ICRC, 1949 Google Scholar; Frutiger, Perceval; L'origine du signe de la croix rouge in Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, No. 426, 06 1954, pp. 456–467 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Dunant, Maurice: Les origines du drapeau et du brassard de la Croix-Rouge in La Croix-Rouge Suisse, XXXth year, No. 1, 1 01 1922, pp. 2–5 Google Scholar; Boissier, Pierre, Histoire du Comité international de la Croix-Rouge, de Solferino à Tsoushima, Paris, Plon, 1963, pp. 105–106.Google Scholar

⁷ Compte rendu… 1863, p. 94.Google Scholar

⁸ Idem, p. 95.

⁹ For recommendations and resolutions see Compte rendu… 1863, pp. 116–118 Google Scholar; International Red Cross Handbook, pp. 375–377 Google Scholar; The Laws of Armed Conflicts, pp. 199–201.Google Scholar

¹⁰ Compte rendu… 1863, p. 117 Google Scholar

¹¹ Idem, p. 118.

¹² Compte rendu de la Conférence Internationale pour la Neutralisation du Service de Santé Militaire en campagne, Geneva, 8–22 08 1864 (handwritten)Google Scholar, Annex A, art. 9; (reproduced in De Martens, : Nouveau Recueil général de Traités, vol. XX, pp. 375–399).Google Scholar

¹³ Compte rendu… 1864, p. 25.Google Scholar

¹⁴ Idem, Annex B, art 7. See also International Red Cross Handbook, p. 8 Google Scholar; The Laws of Armed Conflicts, pp. 203–206.Google Scholar

¹⁵ See: Protocole de la Conférence international réunie à Genève en octobre 1868, Geneva, Imprimerie Fick, 1868.Google Scholar

¹⁶ See: Actes de la Conférence de Bruxelles (1874)Google Scholar, Brussels, Imprimerie du Moniteur Belge, 1874.

¹⁷ It is true that the Turkish delegates attended only part of each conference because they arrived late.

¹⁸ The Laws of Armed Conflicts, p. 206.Google Scholar

¹⁹ See: Bulletin international des Sociétés de Secours aux Militaires blesses. No. 29, 01 1877, pp. 35–37.Google Scholar

²⁰ Idem, p. 36.

²¹ See Bulletin international…, No. 30, 04 1877, pp. 39–47.Google Scholar

²² Idem.

²³ Idem, p. 39 (emphasis added).

²⁴ Idem, p. 40 (emphasis added).

²⁵ Bulletin international…, No. 30, 04 1877, pp. 41–47 Google Scholar, and No. 31, July 1877, pp. 83–91.

²⁶ Bulletin international…, No. 30. p. 42.Google Scholar

²⁷ Bulletin international…, No. 31, 07 1877, pp. 83–84.Google Scholar

²⁸ Bulletin international…, No. 30, 04 1877, pp. 43–44 Google Scholar, (underlined in the original).

²⁹ Idem, p. 44.

³⁰ Idem, p. 45.

³¹ Bulletin international…, No. 31, 07 1877, p. 89.Google Scholar

³² See: Message from the Federal Council to the Sublime Porte on 2 June 1877, reproduced in Bulletin international…, No. 31, 07 1877, pp. 90–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

³³ It would seem an exaggeration to say that the ICRC officially recognized the Ottoman Society for Relief to Military Wounded and Sick in 1877. It did approve the reconstitution of that Society and agreed to a relationship with it, but at the same time it said that the adoption of a sign other than the one recognized in the Convention would place the Society in an irregular position.

So far as we know, it was not until 1887, at the Fourth International Red Cross Conference at Karlsruhe that the ICRC was assigned the mandate of notifying existing National Societies of the constitution of new Societies after verifying the bases on which they were founded. See Compte rendu de la Quatrième Conférence Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Karlsruhe, 1887, pp. 19–20 and 87–102. See chapter II below.

³⁴ Protocole de la Conférence Internationale réunie à Genève en octobre 1868, Geneva, Imprimerie Fick, 1868, pp. 51–54 Google Scholar; The Laws of Armed Conflicts, pp. 207 ff.Google Scholar

³⁵ The Laws of Armed Conflicts, pp. 207 ff.Google Scholar

³⁶ Hague Convention No. III, 1899; see The Proceedings of the Hague Peace Conferences, translation of the official texts prepared in the Division of International Law of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, under the supervision of James Brown Scott, New York, Oxford University Press, 1920–1921, The Conference of 1899, pp. 247–250 Google Scholar; The Laws of Armed Conflicts, pp. 211–215.Google Scholar

³⁷ The Proceedings… 1899, pp. 453–454, 461–462, 388, 390–391 CrossRefGoogle Scholar. So far as we know, the emblem was not discussed in the plenum; see op. cit., pp. 27–44.

³⁸ Idem, pp. 461 and 388.

³⁹ He was attending the Conference as a delegate of the Swiss Government but he was also the secretary and a member of the ICRC. The ICRC itself was not represented.

⁴⁰ Idem, p. 390.

⁴¹ Idem, p. 391.

⁴² The Laws of Armed Conflicts, pp. 211–215.Google Scholar

⁴³ Actes de la Conférence de Révision réunie à Genève du 11 juin au 6 juillet 1906, Geneva, Imprimerie Henry Jarrys, 1906, p. 17.Google Scholar

⁴⁴ Idem, p. 63.

⁴⁵ Ibid.

⁴⁶ 15 June 1906. See Actes 1906, pp. 160–163.Google Scholar

⁴⁷ Idem, p. 161. The Dutch delegate proposed substituting the word “emblem” for “flag”, as a rigid panel was sometimes more easily seen than a flag. The proposal was accepted by the Second Commission.

⁴⁸ Idem, p. 162.

⁴⁹ Ibid.

⁵⁰ Although invited to the Conference, Turkey did not send a delegation.

⁵¹ Actes 1906, p. 162.Google Scholar

⁵² Ibid.

⁵³ Ibid.

⁵⁴ Ibid.

⁵⁵ Ibid. Some writers attach considerable importance to the fact that there was no actual vote. In contrast to the Commission Rapporteur, they contend that the Chairman of the Fourth Commission simply recorded the fact that no delegate asked for the floor. It should be mentioned that diplomatic conference procedure of that time was less formal than today. Generally a vote was taken only if requested; otherwise assent was assumed if no objection was raised. Nevertheless, the procedure demonsstrated agreement, and that was what counted. Incidentally, the practice has recently returned to favour at the United Nations, where it is called the “consensus”. It was in that manner that the “Declaration on Principles of International Law concerning Friendly Relations and Co-operation among States in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations” was adopted without a vote by the General Assembly (Resolution 2625 (XXV) 1970).

⁵⁶ Actes 1906, pp. 162–163.Google Scholar

⁵⁷ 18 June 1906, idem, p. 175.

⁵⁸ Actes 1906, p. 260 Google Scholar (underlined in original).

⁵⁹ Ibid.

⁶⁰ Idem, p. 214.

⁶¹ Idem, p. 286; The Laws of Armed Conflicts, p. 228.Google Scholar

⁶² Actes 1906, p. 292.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁶³ The Laws of Armed Conflicts, p. 233.Google Scholar

⁶⁴ Ibid. See De Martens, : Nouveau Recueil général de Traités, third series, vol. II, p. 620.Google Scholar

⁶⁵ The Laws of Armed Conflicts, p. 233 Google Scholar. See League of Nations Treaty Series, vol. 19, p. 293, and vol. 31, p. 263.Google Scholar

⁶⁶ The Proceedings of The Hague Peace Conferences, translation of the official texts prepared in the Division of International Law of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, under the supervision of James Brown Scott. The Conference of 1907, vol. III (Meetings of the Second, Third and Fourth Commissions), p. 292.Google Scholar

⁶⁷ Idem. pp. 560–561.

⁶⁸ Idem, pp. 562–563.

⁶⁹ Idem, p. 563.

⁷⁰ Ibid.

⁷¹ Idem, pp. 563–564. (italics in original).

⁷² Idem, p. 564.

⁷³ 16 July 1907, idem, pp. 296–299.

⁷⁴ Ibid.

⁷⁵ Idem, pp. 298–299.

⁷⁶ The proceedings of the Hague Peace Conferences, The Conference of 1907, vol. I (Plenary meetings of the Conference), pp. 62–65.Google Scholar

⁷⁷ Idem. p. 63.

⁷⁸ Idem, pp. 63–64.

⁷⁹ Ibid.

⁸⁰ Idem, p. 64.

⁸¹ Idem, p. 65.

⁸² Hague Convention No. X of 18 October 1906.

⁸³ The Proceedings… 1907, vol. I, p. 702 Google Scholar; The Laws of Armed Conflicts, pp. 241–242.Google Scholar

⁸⁴ The Laws of Armed Conflicts, pp. 241–242.Google Scholar

⁸⁵ Ibid.

⁸⁶ See Conference Chairman's closing speech: Actes, 1906, pp. 270–271 Google Scholar: “The unity of the emblem of army medical services has been maintained…”

⁸⁷ Actes … 1906, p. 162.Google Scholar

⁸⁸ The Proceedings… 1907, vol. I, p. 651 Google Scholar; The Laws of Armed Conflicts, p. 237.Google Scholar